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--git a/courses/phi101/assets/en/102.webp b/courses/phi101/assets/en/102.webp index 93aa01bcce8..a675d3fd455 100644 Binary files a/courses/phi101/assets/en/102.webp and b/courses/phi101/assets/en/102.webp differ diff --git a/courses/phi101/bg.md b/courses/phi101/bg.md index 0b1e7c5f64d..e21bda0d4d9 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/bg.md +++ b/courses/phi101/bg.md @@ -32,6 +32,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Въведение в курса + Добре дошли в PHI101! @@ -85,10 +87,12 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Защо да изучаваме историята на свободата? + Защо да озаглавите този курс: История на свободата? Защото трябва да разбираме връзката между идеите и събитията, за да преценяваме епохата си по-ефективно и да действаме проницателно. Именно в миналото откриваме елементите за по-добро разбиране на това какво е свободата и причините, поради които трябва да я пазим. -> Когато миналото вече не осветява бъдещето, духът върви в мрак (Алексис дьо Токвил - _Демокрацията в Америка_). +> Когато миналото вече не осветява бъдещето, духът върви в мрак (Алексис дьо Токвил - _[Демокрацията в Америка](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/en/001.webp) @@ -164,7 +168,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/en/007.webp) -> "Онзи, който се осмелява да се заеме със създаването на народ - казва Русо, - трябва да се чувства способен да промени, така да се каже, човешката природа, да превърне всеки индивид, който сам по себе си е съвършено и самотно цяло, в част от едно по-голямо цяло, от което този индивид получава в известен смисъл своя живот и битие." (_Социален договор_) +> "Онзи, който се осмелява да се заеме със създаването на народ - казва Русо, - трябва да се чувства способен да промени, така да се каже, човешката природа, да превърне всеки индивид, който сам по себе си е съвършено и самотно цяло, в част от едно по-голямо цяло, от което този индивид получава в известен смисъл своя живот и битие." (_[Социален договор](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) От тази гледна точка мисията на законодателя е да организира, променя или дори премахва собствеността, ако сметне за необходимо. За Русо собствеността не е естествена, а конвенционална, както и самото общество. На свой ред Робеспиер установява принципа, че "Собствеността е правото на всеки гражданин да ползва и да се разпорежда с частта от благата, гарантирана му от закона" Не съществува естествено право на собственост; съществуват само неопределен брой възможни и условни договорености. @@ -177,6 +181,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Митът за провиденциалния законодател + Когато човек отваря учебниците, отбелязва Бастиа, научава, че без намесата на властта човечеството би било обречено на нищо: @@ -259,6 +265,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Историята, написана от победителите + Известно е, че победителите пишат историята. Вниманието често се фокусира върху завладяването на властта, върху живота на лидерите на власт и върху конфликтите, които ги противопоставят на онези, които искат да заемат тяхното място. @@ -322,6 +330,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Социалистическият поглед върху историята + Съществува обаче и друга гледна точка към историята. Тя е доста успешна и отдавна се радва на подкрепата на западните интелектуалци и на представителите на глобалния Юг. Това е социалистическият и марксисткият поглед върху историята. ![image](assets/en/013.webp) @@ -350,7 +360,7 @@ objectives: ### Индустриалната революция под въпрос -Всъщност марксисткият анализ изкривява историческата реалност на индустриалната революция. Лудвиг фон Мизес изяснява този въпрос в своя трактат по икономика [_Човешкото действие_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (вж. особено главата, озаглавена [Популярна интерпретация на индустриалната революция](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), както и в поредица от лекции, публикувани под заглавие: [_Икономическа политика: мисли за днес и утре_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Заслужава си да се прочете също така: The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [тук](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) и [тук](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Всъщност марксисткият анализ изкривява историческата реалност на индустриалната революция. Лудвиг фон Мизес изяснява този въпрос в своя трактат по икономика [_Човешкото действие_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (вж. особено главата, озаглавена [Популярна интерпретация на индустриалната революция](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), както и в поредица от лекции, публикувани под заглавие: [_Икономическа политика: мисли за днес и утре_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Заслужава си да се прочете също така: The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [тук](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) и [тук](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/en/014.webp) @@ -421,7 +431,9 @@ objectives: :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -В последната глава на _Анатомия на държавата_ (преведена на френски като _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ от издателство Résurgence) Мъри Ротбард предлага теория на историята. Тази много кратка глава е озаглавена "История: Състезание между държавната и социалната власт" Според Ротбард историята може да бъде разбрана като постоянен конфликт между два основни принципа: +### Държавната власт срещу социалната власт + +В последната глава на _[Анатомия на държавата](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (преведена на френски като _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ от издателство Résurgence) Мъри Ротбард предлага теория на историята. Тази много кратка глава е озаглавена "История: Състезание между държавната и социалната власт" Според Ротбард историята може да бъде разбрана като постоянен конфликт между два основни принципа: ![image](assets/en/017.webp) @@ -477,7 +489,7 @@ objectives: > През този век човешката раса отново се сблъсква с жестокото господство на държавата; държавата, която сега е въоръжена с творческата сила на човека, конфискувана и извратена за своите цели. -> Какво все пак е свободното общество? Това е общество без монопол. В своя труд по политическа философия _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982) Ротбард отговаря: "общество, в което не съществува правна възможност за насилствена агресия срещу личността или собствеността на който и да е индивид" Ето защо според него политическата философия, която трябва да определи принципите на едно справедливо общество, се свежда до един-единствен въпрос: "Кой какво притежава законно?" +> Какво все пак е свободното общество? Това е общество без монопол. В своя труд по политическа философия _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) Ротбард отговаря: "общество, в което не съществува правна възможност за насилствена агресия срещу личността или собствеността на който и да е индивид" Ето защо според него политическата философия, която трябва да определи принципите на едно справедливо общество, се свежда до един-единствен въпрос: "Кой какво притежава законно?" > ![изображение](assets/en/019.webp) @@ -506,6 +518,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Наследството на атинската демокрация + Опитът на атинската демокрация е оставил трайна следа в историята на политическата мисъл и продължава да вдъхновява идеалите за демокрация и гражданско участие в съвременния свят. @@ -646,6 +660,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Космополитна империя + Римската империя е била огромна, космополитна единица. В своя пик, около 117 г. от н.е., тя е била огромна мултиетническа и многоезична държава: @@ -800,6 +816,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Упадък и крах + Защо Рим запада и в крайна сметка пада? Мнозина обичат да мислят, че Римската империя е рухнала внезапно, под въздействието на варварските нашествия. Причините за рухването на Римската империя обаче се крият много по-рано - в империализма и икономическия и паричен дирижизъм. @@ -911,6 +929,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Християнските корени на индивидуалната свобода + Християнската концепция за свободата се развива в средновековното богословие - от Свети Августин през IV век до Свети Тома Аквински през XIII век. Какво представлява тази идея? @@ -988,6 +1008,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Автономията на разума + През Средновековието разумът и вярата се съревновават за достъп до истината. Следвайки Абелар и Алберт Велики, Тома Аквински през XIII в. избира да защитава автономността на разума по отношение на вярата. @@ -1049,6 +1071,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Богословско-политическата система + През Средновековието Църквата и християнските монархии наследяват от Римската империя един политически модел, известен като богословско-политическа система - система, в която властта се смята за свещена, което означава, че политическият лидер е и религиозен лидер. @@ -1107,6 +1131,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Човекът, създаден по образ и подобие Божие + Древната мисъл подчинява човека на божествения космос, т.е. на съвършената вселена, от която той е само част. Монотеизмът, от друга страна, утвърждава безкрайно превъзхождащата стойност на човека над природата, доколкото човекът е създаден по образ и подобие Божие. Този ключов момент е в основата на истинската етическа революция. Библията утвърждава свещената и безкрайна стойност на всяко човешко същество. @@ -1163,6 +1189,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Християнството и свободната икономика + Видяхме, че християнството налага на хората морален дълг да работят за подобряване на света. Бог иска човекът да бъде щастлив, но не иска да постигне своето благо вместо него. Затова християнинът е длъжен да се бори с моралното зло, да обича ближния си, да помага на жертвите, накратко, да работи за един по-справедлив и хуманен свят. Съвместим ли е капитализмът, т.е. свободната икономика, основана на частната собственост и свободата на договорите, с християнския дълг? @@ -1263,6 +1291,8 @@ Oresme веднага повдига един основен въпрос: По :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Религиозните войни и Просвещението + От Ренесанса нататък Европа ще бъде опустошавана от религиозни войни. Затова толерантността се превръща в една от големите битки на Просвещението. ![image](assets/en/050.webp) @@ -1320,7 +1350,7 @@ Oresme веднага повдига един основен въпрос: По ### Истината изисква свобода -И все пак във Франция не липсваха велики умове. Малко известно е, че Ан Робер Жак Турго, барон дьо Лален, е бил преди всичко водещ мислител, преди да стане главен финансов контрольор при Луи XVI. Той е автор на майсторския трактат по политическа икономия "Разсъждения за формирането и разпределението на богатството" (1766 г.), който предшества "Богатството на народите" (1776 г.) на Адам Смит. +И все пак във Франция не липсваха велики умове. Малко известно е, че Ан Робер Жак Турго, барон дьо Лален, е бил преди всичко водещ мислител, преди да стане главен финансов контрольор при Луи XVI. Той е автор на майсторския трактат по политическа икономия "Разсъждения за формирането и разпределението на богатството" (1766 г.), който предшества "[Богатството на народите](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)" (1776 г.) на Адам Смит. ![image](assets/en/052.webp) @@ -1350,6 +1380,8 @@ Oresme веднага повдига един основен въпрос: По :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Произходът на икономическия либерализъм + Икономическият либерализъм често се свързва с англосаксонската традиция, водеща началото си от Адам Смит. Той се противопоставя на "политическия либерализъм", за който се твърди, че води началото си от континенталното Просвещение, особено във Франция. Това мнение е неправилно. @@ -1448,6 +1480,8 @@ Oresme веднага повдига един основен въпрос: По :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Три събития, които промениха историята + 1776 г. е година, която често остава незабелязана в учебниците по история. Въпреки това в три държави - Франция, Шотландия и Северна Америка - няколко събития ще оставят незаличима следа в историята на свободата. @@ -1509,7 +1543,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ ### Манифест за свободата в Америка -През 1776 г. англичанинът Томас Пейн публикува в Америка яростен памфлет, в който критикува английската монархия и се застъпва за независимостта на американските колонисти, озаглавен "Обикновен разум". +През 1776 г. англичанинът Томас Пейн публикува в Америка яростен памфлет, в който критикува английската монархия и се застъпва за независимостта на американските колонисти, озаглавен "[Обикновен разум](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)". ![image](assets/en/059.webp) @@ -1598,6 +1632,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Секуларизацията и модерното общество + Голямата новост на този съвременен период от западната история е появата на общество, което се организира извън религиозната зависимост. Това не означава изчезване на религиозната вяра или смърт на Бога. Но Бог става частен въпрос, който вече не се смесва с политическите дела. Не става дума за изчезване на религията, а за детрониране на нейната ръководна роля. Тя се превръща в система от индивидуални вярвания. @@ -1722,7 +1758,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ С Русо и Робеспиер французите се стремят да вярват, че нацията или общата воля имат неограничена власт и оправдават всички действия. От факта, че народът управлява, се заключаваше, че той има всички права. Очевидно е имало противоречие между великите принципи на Революцията и средствата, използвани за тяхното възтържествуване. -Това е и смисълът на забележката на Фридрих Хайек в книгата му _Конституцията на свободата_: +Това е и смисълът на забележката на Фридрих Хайек в книгата му _[Конституцията на свободата](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Решаващият фактор, който направи напразни усилията на Революцията за насърчаване на личната свобода, беше, че тя създаде илюзията, че доколкото цялата власт е предадена на народа, всички предпазни мерки срещу злоупотребата с нея са станали излишни. @@ -1741,6 +1777,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Древната свобода срещу модерната свобода + Според Бенджамин Констант свободата в съвременните общества вече не може да се разбира по начина на древните култури - като пряко участие в делата на града. @@ -1753,7 +1791,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ В древността хората са били суверенни в обществените дела, но поробени във всички свои лични отношения. Използването на политическите права компенсирало жертвата на личната свобода: правото да се упражняват пряко различни аспекти на суверенитета, да се обсъждат на обществения площад, да се гласуват закони, да се произнасят присъди, да се оценяват и съдят магистрати. Това е политическа и колективна свобода: -> Свободата на древните се е състояла в активно и постоянно участие в колективната власт. Нашата свобода, от друга страна, трябва да се състои в мирно ползване на частната независимост; от това следва, че ние трябва да сме много по-привързани към нашата независимост от древните. (_За свободата на древните в сравнение с тази на съвременните_ (1819 г.)) +> Свободата на древните се е състояла в активно и постоянно участие в колективната власт. Нашата свобода, от друга страна, трябва да се състои в мирно ползване на частната независимост; от това следва, че ние трябва да сме много по-привързани към нашата независимост от древните. (_[За свободата на древните в сравнение с тази на съвременните](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819 г.)) ![image](assets/en/071.webp) @@ -1764,7 +1802,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ Това определение на свободата се среща при Джон Стюарт Мил: -> Единствената свобода, която заслужава това име, е да преследваме своето добро по свой начин, стига да не се опитваме да лишаваме другите от него или да възпрепятстваме усилията им да го постигнат. (...) Човечеството печели повече, като оставя всеки човек да живее така, както смята за добре, отколкото като го принуждава да живее така, както другите смятат за добре. (_За свободата_, 1859 г.) +> Единствената свобода, която заслужава това име, е да преследваме своето добро по свой начин, стига да не се опитваме да лишаваме другите от него или да възпрепятстваме усилията им да го постигнат. (...) Човечеството печели повече, като оставя всеки човек да живее така, както смята за добре, отколкото като го принуждава да живее така, както другите смятат за добре. (_[За свободата](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859 г.) ![image](assets/en/072.webp) @@ -1817,6 +1855,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Токвил и демократичният индивидуализъм + Алексис дьо Токвил е наблюдател на демокрацията и критик на демократичния индивидуализъм. @@ -1928,6 +1968,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Критиката на XIX век + През XIX в. се появява критиката на капитализма, особено марксистката. @@ -1974,6 +2016,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Отговорът на Австрийската школа + Австрийската икономическа школа, основана от Карл Менгер в края на XIX век, от самото начало се противопоставя на теориите на Карл Маркс. @@ -2056,7 +2100,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ ![image](assets/en/085.webp) -Още през 1922 г. в книгата си "Социализмът"_ Лудвиг фон Мизес доказва, че социализмът ще доведе до повсеместен недостиг, тъй като централните плановици няма да могат да правят точни икономически изчисления без системата на цените, осигурена от пазара. +Още през 1922 г. в книгата си "[Социализмът](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)"_ Лудвиг фон Мизес доказва, че социализмът ще доведе до повсеместен недостиг, тъй като централните плановици няма да могат да правят точни икономически изчисления без системата на цените, осигурена от пазара. ## Пътят към робството @@ -2067,7 +2111,9 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Разтревожен от засилването на държавната намеса в икономиките на западните демокрации, Хайек пише "Пътят към крепостничеството" като философска критика на колективизма, независимо дали е отдясно или отляво. Издадена в няколко милиона екземпляра, благодарение на _Reader's Digest_, тази книга допринася значително за известността на Хайек в Съединените щати. +### Предупреждението на Хайек срещу колективизма + +Разтревожен от засилването на държавната намеса в икономиките на западните демокрации, Хайек пише "[Пътят към крепостничеството](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)" като философска критика на колективизма, независимо дали е отдясно или отляво. Издадена в няколко милиона екземпляра, благодарение на _Reader's Digest_, тази книга допринася значително за известността на Хайек в Съединените щати. ![image](assets/en/086.webp) @@ -2130,6 +2176,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Кейнсианската революция + Капитализмът често е обвиняван, че е източник на тази забрана: "Винаги трябва да произвеждаме повече" или на формулата: "Потреблението е полезно за растежа" Тези идеи обаче не произтичат от традиционния капитализъм, а от кейнсианството, което доминира в областта на икономическата наука и политическата класа от 30-те години на миналия век насам. @@ -2139,7 +2187,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ ### Анализ на кризата от 1929 г -Публикуваната през 1936 г. книга на Джон Мейнард Кейнс _Общата теория на заетостта, лихвата и парите_ помита всичко по пътя си. Поставяйки под съмнение причините за Голямата депресия и средствата за излизане от нея, той описва нова икономическа парадигма, която ще преобрази поколения икономисти и политици. +Публикуваната през 1936 г. книга на Джон Мейнард Кейнс _[Общата теория на заетостта, лихвата и парите](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_ помита всичко по пътя си. Поставяйки под съмнение причините за Голямата депресия и средствата за излизане от нея, той описва нова икономическа парадигма, която ще преобрази поколения икономисти и политици. ![image](assets/en/089.webp) @@ -2201,7 +2249,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ ![image](assets/en/094.webp) -В книгата си "Паричният грях на Запада" от 1971 г. Руеф пише: +В книгата си "[Паричният грях на Запада](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)" от 1971 г. Руеф пише: > Именно чрез бюджетния дефицит хората губят свободата си. @@ -2225,6 +2273,8 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Парите и цивилизацията + Парите са инструмент, който е позволил на хората да излязат извън рамките на размяната, да спестяват и да се координират в голям мащаб чрез пазара. Те са направили възможни специализацията на труда, сравнителните предимства, печалбите от търговията и икономическите изчисления. Без пари нямаше да има съвременна цивилизация. @@ -2284,7 +2334,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ съдържа това, което по-късно щ ### Възможен е паричен пазар без държавен монопол -През 1976 г. Хайек предлага алтернатива на монопола на държавата върху създаването на валута: конкуренция между валутите. В книгата си _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Денационализацията на парите_) той си представя паричен пазар без държавен монопол, на който ще съществуват няколко частни валути. Създаването и управлението на различни валути от частни субекти би позволило на индивидите да изберат най-стабилната и надеждна валута, като по този начин се насърчава конкуренцията и дисциплината сред емитентите. +През 1976 г. Хайек предлага алтернатива на монопола на държавата върху създаването на валута: конкуренция между валутите. В книгата си _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Денационализацията на парите](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) той си представя паричен пазар без държавен монопол, на който ще съществуват няколко частни валути. Създаването и управлението на различни валути от частни субекти би позволило на индивидите да изберат най-стабилната и надеждна валута, като по този начин се насърчава конкуренцията и дисциплината сред емитентите. ![image](assets/en/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/cs.md b/courses/phi101/cs.md index cf81419e7e6..2b233d0791d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/cs.md +++ b/courses/phi101/cs.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Od antiky přes osvícenství svoboda vzkvétala, jak společnosti přijímaly t :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Úvod do kurzu + Vítejte v kurzu PHI101! Tento kurz vás zve k prozkoumání vývoje svobody v dějinách prostřednictvím analýzy hlavních myšlenkových proudů, které ji formovaly. Zjistíte, jak se pojem svobody utvářel během staletí, ať už ve spolupráci či v opozici vůči moci, při historickém putování od antiky po současné debaty. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Připraveny ponořit se do tohoto jedinečného filozofického putování za hle :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Proč studovat historii svobody? + Proč tento kurz nazvat historií svobody? Protože potřebujeme pochopit vztah mezi idejemi a událostmi, abychom lépe posoudili naši éru a jednali s rozlišením. V minulosti nacházíme prvky pro lepší pochopení toho, co svoboda je a důvody, proč si ji musíme vážit. -> Když minulost již neosvětluje budoucnost, duch kráčí ve tmě (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokracie v Americe_.) +> Když minulost již neosvětluje budoucnost, duch kráčí ve tmě (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokracie v Americe](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/cs/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ Pro Turgota a Saya, učedníky Quesnaye, existuje přirozený zákon, nezávisl Druhá filozofie se nachází u autorů jako Rousseau, Robespierre nebo Kant, kteří reprezentují republikánskou tradici, pro kterou je suverenita všeobecné vůle skutečným zdrojem práva. Rousseau, současník Quesnaye, je anti-fyziokrat. Pro něj musí zákonodárce organizovat společnost, jako mechanik, který vynalezne stroj z neživé hmoty. ![image](assets/cs/007.webp) -> "Ten, kdo se odváží založit lid," říká Rousseau, "musí cítit schopnost změnit, takřka mluvě, lidskou přirozenost, proměnit každého jednotlivce, který sám o sobě je dokonalým a samostatným celkem, na část většího celku, od kterého tento jednotlivec dostává, jakoby, svůj život a bytí." (_Společenská smlouva_) +> "Ten, kdo se odváží založit lid," říká Rousseau, "musí cítit schopnost změnit, takřka mluvě, lidskou přirozenost, proměnit každého jednotlivce, který sám o sobě je dokonalým a samostatným celkem, na část většího celku, od kterého tento jednotlivec dostává, jakoby, svůj život a bytí." (_[Společenská smlouva](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Z této perspektivy je mise zákonodárce organizovat, měnit, dokonce zrušit vlastnictví, pokud to považuje za dobré. Pro Rousseaua není vlastnictví přirozené, ale konvenční, jako společnost sama. Robespierre naopak stanovuje princip, že "Vlastnictví je právo každého občana užívat a nakládat s částí statků zaručených mu zákonem." Neexistuje přirozené právo na vlastnictví; existuje pouze nekonečný počet možných a kontingentních uspořádání. @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ Z této perspektivy je mise zákonodárce organizovat, měnit, dokonce zrušit v :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Mýtus prozřetelnostního zákonodárce + Když člověk otevře učebnice, Bastiat poznamenal, dozví se, že lidstvo by bylo odsouzeno k ničemu bez zásahu moci: > "Stačí otevřít, téměř náhodně, knihu filozofie, politiky nebo historie, abychom viděli, jak hluboko je v naší zemi zakořeněná tato myšlenka, narozená z klasických studií a matka socialismu, že lidstvo je nečinná hmota, která od moci dostává život, organizaci, morálku a bohatství; — nebo hůře, že lidstvo samo směřuje k své degradaci a je na tomto svahu zastaveno pouze tajemnou rukou Zákonodárce." ([_Zákon_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ Několik dní před svou smrtí v Římě v roce 1850 se Bastiat svěřil svému :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Historii píší vítězové + Je známo, že historie je psána vítězi. Pozornost je často zaměřena na dobytí moci, na životy vůdců u moci a na konflikty, které je staví proti těm, kteří si přejí jejich místo zaujmout. ![obrázek](assets/cs/010.webp) @@ -213,6 +221,8 @@ Tato teze je také nalezena v monumentálním díle datovaném do roku 1983: _Pr :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Socialistický pohled na historii + Existuje však i jiný pohled na historii. Tento pohled byl velmi úspěšný a dlouho si užíval podpory západních intelektuálů a zástupců z Globálního Jihu. Jedná se o socialistický a marxistický pohled na historii. ![obrázek](assets/cs/013.webp) @@ -231,7 +241,7 @@ Tato analýza odráží nepochopení přebytkové hodnoty a kooperativní a dyna ### Průmyslová revoluce v otázce -Ve skutečnosti marxistická analýza zkresluje historickou realitu průmyslové revoluce. Ludwig von Mises tuto otázku objasnil ve svém ekonomickém traktátu [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (viz zejména kapitolu s názvem [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) stejně jako v sérii přednášek publikovaných pod názvem: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Také stojí za přečtení, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [zde](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) a [zde](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Ve skutečnosti marxistická analýza zkresluje historickou realitu průmyslové revoluce. Ludwig von Mises tuto otázku objasnil ve svém ekonomickém traktátu [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (viz zejména kapitolu s názvem [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) stejně jako v sérii přednášek publikovaných pod názvem: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Také stojí za přečtení, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [zde](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) a [zde](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![obrázek](assets/cs/014.webp) Mises vysvětluje, že práce v továrnách, ačkoli byly podle našich standardů bídné, představovaly pro pracovníky té doby nejlepší možnou příležitost. @@ -277,7 +287,9 @@ Je to právě tato radikálně decentralizovaná Evropa, která dala vzniknout p :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -V poslední kapitole _Anatomie státu_ (přeloženo do francouzštiny jako _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, vydavatelství Résurgence), Murray Rothbard předkládá teorii dějin. Tato velmi krátká kapitola má název: Dějiny, závod mezi mocí státu a mocí společnosti. Podle Rothbarda lze dějiny chápat jako věčný konflikt mezi dvěma základními principy: +### Moc státu versus sociální moc + +V poslední kapitole _[Anatomie státu](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (přeloženo do francouzštiny jako _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, vydavatelství Résurgence), Murray Rothbard předkládá teorii dějin. Tato velmi krátká kapitola má název: Dějiny, závod mezi mocí státu a mocí společnosti. Podle Rothbarda lze dějiny chápat jako věčný konflikt mezi dvěma základními principy: ![obrázek](assets/cs/017.webp) @@ -312,7 +324,7 @@ Podle Rothbarda historie není lineární proces, ale spíše oscilace mezi post Od 17. století do 19. století, v mnoha západních zemích, byla období zrychlení sociální moci a odpovídajícího nárůstu svobody, míru a materiálního blahobytu. Ale Rothbard nás připomíná, že 20. století bylo poznamenáno znovuobjevením moci státu, s hroznými důsledky: nárůstem otroctví, války a destrukce: > Během tohoto století čelí lidský rod, znovu, zhoubné vládě státu; státu nyní ozbrojenému tvůrčí silou člověka, zabavené a zneužité pro jeho vlastní cíle. -> Co je vlastně svobodná společnost? Je to společnost bez monopolu. Ve svém díle politické filozofie, _Etika svobody_ (1982), Rothbard odpovídá: "společnost, ve které neexistuje právní možnost nucené agresivity proti osobě nebo majetku jednotlivce." To je důvod, proč podle něj politická filozofie, která musí definovat principy spravedlivé společnosti, se redukuje na jedinou otázku: "Kdo legitimně vlastní co?" +> Co je vlastně svobodná společnost? Je to společnost bez monopolu. Ve svém díle politické filozofie, _[Etika svobody](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard odpovídá: "společnost, ve které neexistuje právní možnost nucené agresivity proti osobě nebo majetku jednotlivce." To je důvod, proč podle něj politická filozofie, která musí definovat principy spravedlivé společnosti, se redukuje na jedinou otázku: "Kdo legitimně vlastní co?" > ![obrázek](assets/cs/019.webp) Pro Rothbarda může sociální řád převládnout, pokud je produktem zobecnění smluvních postupů pro volnou výměnu majetkových práv, privatizací všech ekonomických aktivit a dokonce i suverénních funkcí (centrální banka, soudy) a využitím konkurence mezi ochrannými agenturami. @@ -333,6 +345,8 @@ A dodává: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Odkaz athénské demokracie + Zkušenost s athénskou demokracií zanechala trvalou stopu v historii politického myšlení a dodnes inspiruje ideály demokracie a účasti občanů na veřejném životě. ![image](assets/cs/020.webp) @@ -424,6 +438,8 @@ Jediným prostředkem, jak se přiblížit pravdě, je kritika a diskuse. Z anti :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kosmopolitní říše + Římská říše byla rozsáhlá kosmopolitní entita. Ve svém vrcholu, kolem roku 117 n. l., to byl obrovský multi-etnický a vícejazyčný stát: - Na západě sahala od Velké Británie (dnešní Anglie) po Španělsko, přes Galii (dnešní Francie) a sever Afriky. @@ -522,6 +538,8 @@ Cicero tvrdil, že zákon nemůže být redukován pouze na zákony přijaté z :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Úpadek a zhroucení + Proč Řím upadal a nakonec padl? Mnozí si rádi myslí, že Římská říše se zhroutila náhle, pod vlivem invazí barbarů. Avšak příčiny pádu Římské říše jsou k nalezení mnohem dříve, v imperialismu a ekonomickém a měnovém dirigismu. @@ -595,6 +613,8 @@ A dodává: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Křesťanské kořeny individuální svobody + Křesťanská idea svobody se vyvinula ve středověké teologii svatého Augustina ve 4. století, až po svatého Tomáše Akvinského ve 13. století. Co je to za myšlenku? ![image](assets/cs/037.webp) @@ -646,6 +666,8 @@ Podle svatého Tomáše: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Autonomie rozumu + Ve středověku soutěží rozum a víra o přístup k pravdě. Následující Abélarda a Alberta Velikého, Tomáš Akvinský ve 13. století obhajoval práva rozumu a jeho autonomii ve vztahu k víře. ![image](assets/cs/040.webp) @@ -684,6 +706,8 @@ Od té doby by náboženský racionalismus definitivně převážil nad mysticis :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Teologicko-politický systém + Ve středověku církev a křesťanské monarchie zdědily politický model od Římské říše, který historikové nazývají teologicko-politický systém, což znamená systém, kde je moc posvátná, tj. kde je politický vůdce také náboženským vůdcem. To je důvod, proč jsou středověké společnosti charakterizovány politicko-náboženským unanimismem. Politická moc zakládá svou legitimitu, autoritu a jednotu na křesťanské (nebo muslimské) víře. Považuje se za strážce kulturní a náboženské ortodoxie a ty, kteří se od této jednoty odchylují, považuje za vyvrhele. V tomto kontextu, i když určitá tolerance mohla být udělena těm, kteří se odtrhnou od společné kulturní vize (jako Židé), nebylo jim uznáno právo na pluralismus. Až do konce středověku, s dobýváním Ameriky, se problém občanských svobod stal pro církev klíčovým a objevila se první filozofie práva, která potvrdila a chránila individuální svobody, legitimovala pluralismus a odsoudila státní nátlak. @@ -722,6 +746,8 @@ Teokratické pokušení církve se také střetává s teorií "božského práv :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Člověk stvořený k obrazu Božímu + Starověké myšlení podřizovalo člověka božskému kosmu, tedy dokonalému vesmíru, jehož byl pouze součástí. Monoteismus naopak tvrdí, že člověk má nekonečně vyšší hodnotu než příroda, jelikož je stvořen k obrazu Božímu. Tento klíčový bod je na počátku pravé etické revoluce. Bible potvrzuje posvátnou a nekonečnou hodnotu každého lidského bytí. To je důvod, proč biblická etika mění náš vztah ke zlu. Přináší ostrou a bezprecedentní citlivost k lidskému utrpení. Proto nás povzbuzuje považovat za abnormální a nesnesitelné zlo, které lidstvo do té doby považovalo za zcela snesitelné, zejména zlo páchané na druhých, na slabých, na nevinných. @@ -760,6 +786,8 @@ Idea humanity postupuje. Skutečně se začalo uvažovat, že existuje pouze jed :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Křesťanství a svobodná ekonomika + Viděli jsme, že křesťanství klade na lidi morální povinnost pracovat na zlepšení světa. Bůh chce, aby člověk byl šťastný, ale nechce dosáhnout jeho dobra místo něj. Je tedy na křesťanovi, aby bojoval proti morálnímu zlu, miloval svého bližního, pomáhal obětem, zkrátka pracoval na spravedlivějším a humánnějším světě. Je kapitalismus, tedy svobodná ekonomika založená na soukromém vlastnictví a svobodě smluv, slučitelný s křesťanskou povinností? Část odpovědi spočívá ve skutečnosti, že kapitalismus vznikl v náboženském kontextu, dlouho před protestantskou reformací. Další část odpovědi spočívá v pozorování faktu, že kapitalismus je nejlepším prostředkem ke zlepšení materiálního a morálního stavu jednotlivců. Pouze svobodná ekonomika, založená na právech vlastnictví a dobrovolné spolupráci, je schopna udržitelně vymanit lidi z bídy. @@ -825,6 +853,8 @@ Navíc, pokud dvě různé měny těží z právního uznání, agenti budou hro :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Náboženské války a osvícenství + Od renesance byla Evropa sužována válkami náboženskými. Tolerance se tedy stala jednou z velkých bitev osvícenství. ![image](assets/cs/050.webp) @@ -861,7 +891,7 @@ Ve _Desátém dopise_, "O obchodu", Voltaire popisuje francouzské myšlení tak ### Pravda vyžaduje svobodu -Přesto ve Francii nechyběli velké mysli. Je málo známo, ale Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne byl především předním myslitelem, než se stal generálním kontrolérem financí za Ludvíka XVI. Byl autorem mistrovského pojednání o politické ekonomii, _Úvahy o vzniku a rozdělení bohatství_ (1766), které předcházelo _Bohatství národů_ od Adama Smithe (1776). +Přesto ve Francii nechyběli velké mysli. Je málo známo, ale Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne byl především předním myslitelem, než se stal generálním kontrolérem financí za Ludvíka XVI. Byl autorem mistrovského pojednání o politické ekonomii, _Úvahy o vzniku a rozdělení bohatství_ (1766), které předcházelo _[Bohatství národů](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ od Adama Smithe (1776). ![obrázek](assets/cs/052.webp) Jeho rané spisy odrážejí jeho závazek k filozofii osvícenství. V roce 1754 publikoval své _Dopisy o občanské toleranci_ a v roce 1757 několik článků napsaných pro _Encyklopedii_ od Diderota a d'Alemberta. @@ -880,6 +910,8 @@ Jinými slovy, být tolerantní neznamená být nepřátelský k náboženství. :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Původ ekonomického liberalismu + Ekonomický liberalismus je často spojován s anglosaskou tradicí, která vychází z Adama Smithe, v kontrastu s "politickým liberalismem", o kterém se říká, že pochází z kontinentálního osvícenství, zejména ve Francii. Tento pohled je nesprávný. ![image](assets/cs/053.webp) @@ -941,6 +973,8 @@ Stručně řečeno, pokud každý může svobodně sledovat svůj soukromý záj :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tři události, které změnily historii + 1776 je rok, který často zůstává v učebnicích dějepisu nepovšimnut. Ale ve třech zemích, Francii, Skotsku a Severní Americe, několik událostí zanechá nezamazatelnou stopu v historii svobody. ### Hanba Turgota @@ -980,7 +1014,7 @@ Je to také pojednání o filozofii, protože ukazuje, jak volný a dobrovolný ### Manifest za svobodu v Americe -V roce 1776 angličan jménem Thomas Paine publikoval v Americe ostrý pamflet kritizující anglickou monarchii a obhajující nezávislost amerických kolonistů: _Common Sense_. +V roce 1776 angličan jménem Thomas Paine publikoval v Americe ostrý pamflet kritizující anglickou monarchii a obhajující nezávislost amerických kolonistů: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/cs/059.webp) @@ -1040,6 +1074,8 @@ Tato myšlenka spontánního řádu se stane klíčovým konceptem v díle Fried :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularizace a moderní společnost + Velkou novinkou tohoto moderního období v západní historii je vznik společnosti, která se organizuje mimo náboženskou závislost. To neznamená zmizení náboženské víry nebo smrt Boha. Ale Bůh se stává soukromou záležitostí, již není smíchán s politickými záležitostmi. Nedochází k zmizení náboženství, ale k sesazení jeho vedoucí role. Stává se systémem individuálních věr. Tato sekularizace západního světa neproběhla přes noc. Byla připravena myšlenkami. Jak často, filozofie je v čele hlavních kulturních změn. @@ -1122,7 +1158,7 @@ V Americe neexistovalo ekonomické dirigismus, ani monetární bankrot jako u As S Rousseauem a Robespierrem chtěli Francouzi věřit, že Národ nebo všeobecná vůle měla neomezenou moc a ospravedlňovala vše. Z faktu, že lidé vládli, bylo usuzováno, že mají všechna práva. Byl zde jasný rozpor mezi velkými principy Revoluce a prostředky použitými k jejich prosazení. -To je mimochodem smyslem poznámky Friedricha Hayeka ve své knize _The Constitution of Liberty_: +To je mimochodem smyslem poznámky Friedricha Hayeka ve své knize _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Rozhodujícím faktorem, který zmařil úsilí Revoluce ve prospěch podpory individuální svobody, bylo to, že vytvořila iluzi, že pokud byla veškerá moc předána lidu, staly se všechny opatření proti zneužití této moci zbytečnými. @@ -1136,6 +1172,8 @@ To je mimochodem smyslem poznámky Friedricha Hayeka ve své knize _The Constitu :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antická versus moderní svoboda + Podle Benjamina Constanta, svoboda v našich moderních společnostech již nemůže být chápána jako přímá účast na záležitostech města, jak tomu bylo ve společnostech antiky. ![image](assets/cs/070.webp) @@ -1143,14 +1181,14 @@ Podle Benjamina Constanta, svoboda v našich moderních společnostech již nem ### Svoboda v soukromém životě Ve starověku byl jedinec suverénem ve veřejných záležitostech, ale zotročen ve všech svých soukromých vztazích. Oběť individuální svobody byla kompenzována používáním politických práv: právo přímo vykonávat různé části suverenity, diskutovat na veřejném náměstí, hlasovat o zákonech, vynášet rozsudky, hodnotit a soudit magistráty. Jedná se o politickou a kolektivní svobodu: -Svoboda starověkých spočívala v aktivní a stálé účasti na kolektivní moci. Naše svoboda, na druhou stranu, musí spočívat v mírumilovném užívání soukromé nezávislosti; z toho vyplývá, že musíme být k naší individuální nezávislosti mnohem více připoutáni než starověcí. (_O svobodě starověkých ve srovnání se svobodou moderních_ (1819)) +Svoboda starověkých spočívala v aktivní a stálé účasti na kolektivní moci. Naše svoboda, na druhou stranu, musí spočívat v mírumilovném užívání soukromé nezávislosti; z toho vyplývá, že musíme být k naší individuální nezávislosti mnohem více připoutáni než starověcí. (_[O svobodě starověkých ve srovnání se svobodou moderních](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/cs/071.webp) Moderní svoboda je občanská svoboda, která zahrnuje ekonomickou svobodu a je založena na právu na soukromí. Je to právo nebýt vystaven libovolnému zásahu, právo na vyjádření, shromáždění, pohyb, náboženské vyznání a podnikání. Svoboda neexistuje bez možnosti volby životního stylu a hodnot, tudíž neexistuje svoboda bez možnosti odstoupit od společnosti a tedy neexistuje svoboda bez omezení státu, aby umožnil existenci tohoto soukromého prostoru. Je to svoboda, která odpovídá tomu, co Američané nazývají občanská práva. Tuto definici svobody najdeme u Johna Stuarta Milla: -> Jediná svoboda, která si zaslouží toto jméno, je svoboda usilovat o naše vlastní dobro vlastním způsobem, pokud se nepokoušíme odepřít ostatním jejich svobodu nebo bránit jejich snahám ji získat. (...) Lidstvo získá více tím, že nechá každého žít, jak uzná za vhodné, než tím, že ho nutí žít podle toho, co se zdá být dobré ostatním. (_O svobodě_, 1859) +> Jediná svoboda, která si zaslouží toto jméno, je svoboda usilovat o naše vlastní dobro vlastním způsobem, pokud se nepokoušíme odepřít ostatním jejich svobodu nebo bránit jejich snahám ji získat. (...) Lidstvo získá více tím, že nechá každého žít, jak uzná za vhodné, než tím, že ho nutí žít podle toho, co se zdá být dobré ostatním. (_[O svobodě](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/cs/072.webp) @@ -1186,6 +1224,8 @@ Jinými slovy, ve svobodné společnosti je nutné stanovit přísnou hranici me :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville a demokratický individualismus + Alexis de Tocqueville byl pozorným pozorovatelem demokracie a kritikem demokratického individualismu. ![image](assets/cs/074.webp) @@ -1260,6 +1300,8 @@ Podívejte se na zeměkouli. Které jsou nejšťastnější, nejmorálnější a :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Kritika 19. století + Během 19. století se objevila kritika kapitalismu, a zejména marxistická kritika. ![image](assets/cs/078.webp) @@ -1290,6 +1332,8 @@ Politická revoluce je proto podle něj iluzí, dokud není doprovázena ekonomi :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Odpověď rakouské školy + Rakouská škola ekonomie, založená Carlem Mengerem na konci 19. století, od počátku odmítala teorie Karla Marxe. ![image](assets/cs/081.webp) @@ -1343,7 +1387,7 @@ Marxisté věří, že socialismus, ekonomický systém, ve kterém jsou prostř ![image](assets/cs/085.webp) -Už v roce 1922 ve své knize _Socialismus_ Ludwig von Mises ukázal, že socialismus by vedl k rozsáhlým nedostatkům, protože centrální plánovači by nebyli schopni provádět přesné ekonomické výpočty bez cenového systému poskytovaného trhem. +Už v roce 1922 ve své knize _[Socialismus](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ Ludwig von Mises ukázal, že socialismus by vedl k rozsáhlým nedostatkům, protože centrální plánovači by nebyli schopni provádět přesné ekonomické výpočty bez cenového systému poskytovaného trhem. ## Cesta ke nevolnictví @@ -1351,7 +1395,9 @@ Už v roce 1922 ve své knize _Socialismus_ Ludwig von Mises ukázal, že social :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmován vzestupem vládního intervencionismu v ekonomikách západních demokracií, Hayek napsal _Cestu ke nevolnictví_ jako filozofickou kritiku kolektivismu, ať už z pravice nebo z levice. Díky _Reader’s Digest_ byla tato kniha vydána v několika milionech kopií a výrazně přispěla k Hayekově slávě ve Spojených státech. +### Hayekovo varování před kolektivismem + +Alarmován vzestupem vládního intervencionismu v ekonomikách západních demokracií, Hayek napsal _[Cestu ke nevolnictví](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ jako filozofickou kritiku kolektivismu, ať už z pravice nebo z levice. Díky _Reader’s Digest_ byla tato kniha vydána v několika milionech kopií a výrazně přispěla k Hayekově slávě ve Spojených státech. ![image](assets/cs/086.webp) @@ -1394,13 +1440,15 @@ Na závěr Hayek vyzývá své současníky, aby se odvrátili od "šílenství" :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Keynesiánská revoluce + Kapitalismus je často obviňován, že je zdrojem výzvy: "musíme vždy produkovat více," nebo formule: "spotřeba je dobrá pro růst." Tyto myšlenky však nevycházejí z tradičního kapitalismu, ale z keynesiánství, které od 30. let 20. století dominovalo oblasti ekonomické vědy a politické třídě. ![image](assets/cs/088.webp) ### Analýza krize z roku 1929 -Publikace z roku 1936, kniha od Johna Maynarda Keynese: _Obecná teorie zaměstnanosti, úroku a peněz_, změnila vše ve své cestě. Při zkoumání příčin Velké deprese a prostředků k jejímu překonání popisuje nový ekonomický paradigma, které přesvědčilo generace ekonomů a politiků. +Publikace z roku 1936, kniha od Johna Maynarda Keynese: _[Obecná teorie zaměstnanosti, úroku a peněz](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, změnila vše ve své cestě. Při zkoumání příčin Velké deprese a prostředků k jejímu překonání popisuje nový ekonomický paradigma, které přesvědčilo generace ekonomů a politiků. ![image](assets/cs/089.webp) @@ -1438,7 +1486,7 @@ Od roku 1958 bude pod autoritou generála de Gaulla prováděna politika na náp ![image](assets/cs/094.webp) -V _Monetárním hříchu Západu_ v roce 1971 Rueff píše: +V _[Monetárním hříchu Západu](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ v roce 1971 Rueff píše: > Je to prostřednictvím rozpočtového deficitu, že lidé ztrácejí svou svobodu. @@ -1455,6 +1503,8 @@ V roce 1976 napadl keynesiánství naposledy v článku pro noviny _Le Monde_. :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Peníze a civilizace + Peníze jsou nástrojem, který umožnil lidem překonat barter, šetřit a koordinovat na velké škále prostřednictvím trhu. Umožnily specializaci práce, komparativní výhody, zisky z obchodu, ekonomické kalkulace. Bez peněz neexistuje moderní civilizace. ### Zlato jako globální standard @@ -1498,7 +1548,7 @@ V únoru 1965, během televizní tiskové konference, generál de Gaulle, přím ### Měnový trh bez státního monopolu je možný -V roce 1976 Hayek navrhl alternativu k monopolu státu na tvorbu měny: konkurenci mezi měnami. Ve své knize, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Denacionalizace peněz_), představil měnový trh bez státního monopolu, ve kterém by existovalo několik soukromých měn. Tvorba a správa různých měn soukromými subjekty by umožnila jednotlivcům vybrat si nejstabilnější a nejspolehlivější měnu, čímž by podpořila konkurenci a disciplínu mezi vydavateli. +V roce 1976 Hayek navrhl alternativu k monopolu státu na tvorbu měny: konkurenci mezi měnami. Ve své knize, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Denacionalizace peněz](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), představil měnový trh bez státního monopolu, ve kterém by existovalo několik soukromých měn. Tvorba a správa různých měn soukromými subjekty by umožnila jednotlivcům vybrat si nejstabilnější a nejspolehlivější měnu, čímž by podpořila konkurenci a disciplínu mezi vydavateli. ![image](assets/cs/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/de.md b/courses/phi101/de.md index c62a40b9935..97d131be3c9 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/de.md +++ b/courses/phi101/de.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Von der Antike bis zur Aufklärung stieg die Freiheit auf, als Gesellschaften To :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Einführung in den Kurs + Willkommen im Kurs PHI101! Diese Ausbildung lädt Sie ein, die Entwicklung der Freiheit im Laufe der Geschichte zu erkunden, indem Sie die großen Denkrichtungen analysieren, die sie geprägt haben. Sie werden entdecken, wie sich der Begriff der Freiheit im Laufe der Jahrhunderte entwickelt hat, entweder im Widerstand gegen oder in Zusammenarbeit mit der Macht, auf einer historischen Reise von der Antike bis zu zeitgenössischen Debatten. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Bereit, in diese einzigartige philosophische Reise auf der Suche nach Freiheit e :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Warum die Geschichte der Freiheit studieren? + Warum diesen Kurs betiteln als: eine Geschichte der Freiheit? Weil wir die Beziehung zwischen Ideen und Ereignissen verstehen müssen, um unsere Ära besser zu beurteilen und mit Unterscheidungsvermögen zu handeln. Es ist in der Vergangenheit, dass wir die Elemente für ein besseres Verständnis dessen finden, was Freiheit ist und die Gründe, warum wir sie schätzen müssen. -> Wenn die Vergangenheit die Zukunft nicht mehr erleuchtet, wandelt der Geist in Dunkelheit (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokratie in Amerika_.) +> Wenn die Vergangenheit die Zukunft nicht mehr erleuchtet, wandelt der Geist in Dunkelheit (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokratie in Amerika](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/de/001.webp) @@ -105,7 +109,7 @@ Für Turgot und Say, Schüler von Quesnay, existiert ein natürliches Gesetz, un Die zweite Philosophie findet sich bei Autoren wie Rousseau, Robespierre oder Kant, die die republikanische Tradition verkörpern, für die die Souveränität des allgemeinen Willens die wahre Quelle des Rechts ist. Ein Zeitgenosse von Quesnay, Rousseau, ist ein Anti-Physiokrat. Für ihn muss der Gesetzgeber die Gesellschaft organisieren, wie ein Mechaniker, der eine Maschine aus toter Materie erfindet. ![image](assets/de/007.webp) -> "Wer es wagt, die Gründung eines Volkes zu unternehmen", sagt Rousseau, "muss sich fähig fühlen, sozusagen die menschliche Natur zu ändern, jeden Einzelnen, der für sich ein vollkommenes und einsames Ganzes ist, in einen Teil eines größeren Ganzen zu verwandeln, von dem dieser Einzelne gewissermaßen sein Leben und Sein erhält." (_Gesellschaftsvertrag_) +> "Wer es wagt, die Gründung eines Volkes zu unternehmen", sagt Rousseau, "muss sich fähig fühlen, sozusagen die menschliche Natur zu ändern, jeden Einzelnen, der für sich ein vollkommenes und einsames Ganzes ist, in einen Teil eines größeren Ganzen zu verwandeln, von dem dieser Einzelne gewissermaßen sein Leben und Sein erhält." (_[Gesellschaftsvertrag](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Aus dieser Perspektive ist es die Aufgabe des Gesetzgebers, zu organisieren, zu verändern, sogar Eigentum abzuschaffen, wenn er es für gut hält. Für Rousseau ist Eigentum nicht natürlich, sondern konventionell, wie die Gesellschaft selbst. Robespierre wiederum etabliert das Prinzip, dass "Eigentum das Recht jedes Bürgers ist, den ihm durch das Gesetz garantierten Teil der Güter zu genießen und darüber zu verfügen." Es gibt kein natürliches Recht auf Eigentum; es gibt nur eine unbestimmte Anzahl von möglichen und kontingenten Arrangements. @@ -115,6 +119,8 @@ Aus dieser Perspektive ist es die Aufgabe des Gesetzgebers, zu organisieren, zu :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Der Mythos vom vorsehenden Gesetzgeber + Wenn man Lehrbücher öffnet, stellte Bastiat fest, lernt man, dass die Menschheit ohne das Eingreifen der Macht dem Nichts verdammt wäre: > "Es genügt, fast willkürlich, ein Buch der Philosophie, Politik oder Geschichte zu öffnen, um zu sehen, wie tief verwurzelt in unserem Land diese Idee ist, geboren aus klassischen Studien und der Mutter des Sozialismus, dass die Menschheit eine inerte Materie ist, die vom Macht Leben, Organisation, Moralität und Reichtum erhält; — oder schlimmer, dass die Menschheit selbst zu ihrer Degradierung tendiert und nur durch die mysteriöse Hand des Gesetzgebers auf dieser Abwärtsspirale gestoppt wird." ([_Das Gesetz_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -172,6 +178,8 @@ Ein paar Tage vor seinem Tod in Rom im Jahr 1850 vertraute Bastiat seinem Freund :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Die von den Siegern geschriebene Geschichte + Es ist bekannt, Geschichte wird von den Siegern geschrieben. Die Aufmerksamkeit konzentriert sich oft auf die Eroberung der Macht, auf das Leben der Machthaber und auf die Konflikte, die sie mit denen haben, die ihren Platz einnehmen möchten. ![image](assets/de/010.webp) @@ -214,6 +222,8 @@ Diese These findet sich auch in einem monumentalen Werk aus dem Jahr 1983: _Rech :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Die sozialistische Sicht der Geschichte + Es gibt jedoch auch eine andere Perspektive auf die Geschichte. Sie war recht erfolgreich und genoss lange Zeit die Unterstützung westlicher Intellektueller und Vertreter des Globalen Südens. Dies ist die sozialistische und marxistische Sicht der Geschichte. ![image](assets/de/013.webp) @@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ Diese Analyse spiegelt ein Missverständnis des Mehrwerts und der kooperativen s ### Die Industrielle Revolution in Frage gestellt -In der Tat verzerrt die marxistische Analyse die historische Realität der Industriellen Revolution. Ludwig von Mises klärte diese Frage in seinem wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Traktat [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (siehe insbesondere das Kapitel mit dem Titel [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) sowie in einer Reihe von Vorlesungen, die unter dem Titel: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) veröffentlicht wurden. (Ebenfalls lesenswert, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [hier](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) und [hier](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +In der Tat verzerrt die marxistische Analyse die historische Realität der Industriellen Revolution. Ludwig von Mises klärte diese Frage in seinem wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Traktat [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (siehe insbesondere das Kapitel mit dem Titel [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) sowie in einer Reihe von Vorlesungen, die unter dem Titel: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) veröffentlicht wurden. (Ebenfalls lesenswert, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [hier](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) und [hier](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/de/014.webp) @@ -281,7 +291,9 @@ Es ist dieses radikal dezentralisierte Europa, das Parlamente, Landtage und Gene :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Im letzten Kapitel von _Anatomy of the State_ (übersetzt ins Französische als _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, von den Résurgence-Editionen), schlägt Murray Rothbard eine Theorie der Geschichte vor. Dieses sehr kurze Kapitel trägt den Titel: Geschichte, ein Rennen zwischen Staatsmacht und sozialer Macht. Laut Rothbard kann die Geschichte als ein ewiger Konflikt zwischen zwei grundlegenden Prinzipien verstanden werden: +### Staatsmacht versus soziale Macht + +Im letzten Kapitel von _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (übersetzt ins Französische als _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, von den Résurgence-Editionen), schlägt Murray Rothbard eine Theorie der Geschichte vor. Dieses sehr kurze Kapitel trägt den Titel: Geschichte, ein Rennen zwischen Staatsmacht und sozialer Macht. Laut Rothbard kann die Geschichte als ein ewiger Konflikt zwischen zwei grundlegenden Prinzipien verstanden werden: ![image](assets/de/017.webp) @@ -316,7 +328,7 @@ Laut Rothbard ist die Geschichte kein linearer Prozess, sondern vielmehr eine Os Vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zum 19. Jahrhundert gab es in vielen westlichen Ländern Perioden der Beschleunigung sozialer Macht und eines entsprechenden Anstiegs von Freiheit, Frieden und materiellem Wohlergehen. Aber Rothbard erinnert uns daran, dass das 20. Jahrhundert von einem Wiederaufleben der Staatsmacht geprägt war, mit schlimmen Folgen: einem Anstieg von Sklaverei, Krieg und Zerstörung: > In diesem Jahrhundert sieht sich die Menschheit erneut der virulenten Herrschaft des Staates gegenüber; der Staat nun bewaffnet mit der schöpferischen Kraft des Menschen, konfisziert und für seine eigenen Zwecke pervertiert. -> Was ist überhaupt eine freie Gesellschaft? Es ist eine Gesellschaft ohne Monopol. In seinem Werk der politischen Philosophie, _Ethik der Freiheit_ (1982), antwortet Rothbard: "eine Gesellschaft, in der es keine rechtliche Möglichkeit der zwanghaften Aggression gegen die Person oder das Eigentum eines Individuums gibt." Deshalb, so sagt er, reduziert sich die politische Philosophie, die die Prinzipien einer gerechten Gesellschaft definieren muss, auf eine einzige Frage: "Wer besitzt legitim was?" +> Was ist überhaupt eine freie Gesellschaft? Es ist eine Gesellschaft ohne Monopol. In seinem Werk der politischen Philosophie, _[Ethik der Freiheit](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), antwortet Rothbard: "eine Gesellschaft, in der es keine rechtliche Möglichkeit der zwanghaften Aggression gegen die Person oder das Eigentum eines Individuums gibt." Deshalb, so sagt er, reduziert sich die politische Philosophie, die die Prinzipien einer gerechten Gesellschaft definieren muss, auf eine einzige Frage: "Wer besitzt legitim was?" > ![image](assets/de/019.webp) Für Rothbard kann die soziale Ordnung vorherrschen, wenn sie das Produkt der Verallgemeinerung vertraglicher Verfahren für den freien Austausch von Eigentumsrechten ist, indem alle wirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten und sogar souveräne Funktionen (Zentralbank, Gerichte) privatisiert werden und indem auf Wettbewerb unter Schutzagenturen zurückgegriffen wird. @@ -337,6 +349,8 @@ Und er fügt hinzu: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Das Erbe der athenischen Demokratie + Die Erfahrung der athenischen Demokratie hat einen bleibenden Eindruck in der Geschichte des politischen Denkens hinterlassen und inspiriert auch heute noch Ideale der Demokratie und der Bürgerbeteiligung. ![image](assets/de/020.webp) @@ -429,6 +443,8 @@ Das einzige Mittel, das wir haben, um uns der Wahrheit zu nähern, sind Kritik u :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Ein kosmopolitisches Reich + Das Römische Reich war eine riesige kosmopolitische Entität. Auf seinem Höhepunkt, um 117 n. Chr., war es ein immenser multiethnischer und mehrsprachiger Staat: - Im Westen erstreckte es sich von Großbritannien (heutiges England) bis Spanien, über Gallien (heutiges Frankreich) und den Norden Afrikas. @@ -530,6 +546,8 @@ Indem er behauptete, dass das Gesetz nicht auf bloße vom Gesetzgeber erlassene :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Niedergang und Zusammenbruch + Warum ging Rom unter und fiel letztendlich? Viele glauben gerne, dass das Römische Reich plötzlich unter dem Einfluss barbarischer Invasionen zusammenbrach. Die Ursachen für den Zusammenbruch des Römischen Reiches sind jedoch viel früher zu finden, im Imperialismus und in wirtschaftlichem und monetärem Dirigismus. @@ -603,6 +621,8 @@ Und er fügt hinzu: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Christliche Wurzeln der individuellen Freiheit + Die christliche Idee der Freiheit entwickelte sich in der mittelalterlichen Theologie des Heiligen Augustinus im 4. Jahrhundert bis zu Thomas von Aquin im 13. Jahrhundert. Was ist diese Idee? ![image](assets/de/037.webp) @@ -655,6 +675,8 @@ Laut Thomas von Aquin: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Die Autonomie der Vernunft + Im Mittelalter konkurrieren Vernunft und Glaube um den Zugang zur Wahrheit. In der Nachfolge von Abélard und Albertus Magnus verteidigte Thomas von Aquin im 13. Jahrhundert die Rechte der Vernunft und ihre Autonomie in Bezug auf den Glauben. ![image](assets/de/040.webp) @@ -693,6 +715,8 @@ Von da an würde der religiöse Rationalismus endgültig über den Mystizismus s :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Das theologisch-politische System + Im Mittelalter erbten die Kirche und die christlichen Monarchien ein politisches Modell vom Römischen Reich, das Historiker das theologisch-politische System nennen, was bedeutet, dass es ein System ist, in dem die Macht heilig ist, d.h., wo der politische Führer auch ein religiöser Führer ist. Aus diesem Grund sind mittelalterliche Gesellschaften durch politisch-religiösen Unanimismus gekennzeichnet. Politische Machtbasen stützen ihre Legitimität, Autorität und Einheit auf den christlichen (oder muslimischen) Glauben. Sie betrachten sich selbst als Hüter der kulturellen und religiösen Orthodoxie und behandeln diejenigen, die von dieser Einmütigkeit abweichen, als Außenseiter. In diesem Kontext konnte, selbst wenn eine gewisse Toleranz denen zugestanden werden könnte, die sich von der gemeinsamen kulturellen Vision lösen (wie zum Beispiel Juden), ihnen kein Recht auf Pluralismus anerkannt werden. Erst mit dem Ende des Mittelalters, mit der Eroberung Amerikas, wurde das Problem der bürgerlichen Freiheiten für die Kirche entscheidend und führte zum Aufkommen einer ersten Rechtsphilosophie, die individuelle Freiheiten bekräftigte und schützte, Pluralismus legitimierte und staatlichen Zwang verurteilte. @@ -734,6 +758,8 @@ Die theokratische Versuchung der Kirche stößt auch auf die Theorie des "Gottes :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Der Mensch als Ebenbild Gottes + Das antike Denken unterordnete den Menschen einem göttlichen Kosmos, das heißt, einem perfekten Universum, von dem er lediglich ein Teil war. Der Monotheismus hingegen betont den unendlich überlegenen Wert des Menschen gegenüber der Natur, insofern der Mensch nach dem Bild Gottes geschaffen ist. Dieser entscheidende Punkt ist der Ursprung einer wahren ethischen Revolution. Die Bibel bekräftigt den heiligen und unendlichen Wert jedes einzelnen Menschen. Deshalb verändert die biblische Ethik unsere Beziehung zum Bösen. Sie bringt eine scharfe und beispiellose Sensibilität für menschliches Leiden mit sich. Sie ermutigt uns daher, als abnormal und unerträglich anzusehen, was die Menschheit bis dahin als vollkommen erträglich empfunden hatte, insbesondere das Böse, das anderen, den Schwachen, den Unschuldigen angetan wird. @@ -768,6 +794,8 @@ Die Idee der Menschlichkeit macht Fortschritte. Es kam tatsächlich dazu, dass n :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Das Christentum und die freie Wirtschaft + Wir haben gesehen, dass das Christentum den Menschen eine moralische Pflicht auferlegt, an der Verbesserung der Welt zu arbeiten. Gott möchte, dass der Mensch glücklich ist, aber er möchte sein Gutes nicht an seiner Stelle erreichen. Es liegt also am Christen, das moralische Übel zu bekämpfen, seinen Nächsten zu lieben, den Opfern zu helfen, kurz gesagt, für eine gerechtere und humanere Welt zu arbeiten. Ist der Kapitalismus, das heißt die freie Wirtschaft, die auf Privateigentum und Vertragsfreiheit basiert, mit der christlichen Pflicht vereinbar? Ein Teil der Antwort liegt in der Tatsache, dass der Kapitalismus in einem religiösen Kontext entstand, lange vor der protestantischen Reformation. Der andere Teil der Antwort besteht darin, die Tatsache zu beobachten, dass der Kapitalismus das beste Mittel ist, um die materielle und moralische Bedingung der Individuen zu verbessern. Nur eine freie Wirtschaft, die auf Eigentumsrechten und freiwilliger Zusammenarbeit basiert, ist in der Lage, Menschen nachhaltig aus dem Elend zu heben. @@ -834,6 +862,8 @@ Außerdem, wenn zwei verschiedene Währungen gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel genieß :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Religionskriege und die Aufklärung + Von der Renaissance an sollte Europa von Religionskriegen verwüstet werden. Toleranz wurde daher zu einer der großen Schlachten der Aufklärung. ![image](assets/de/050.webp) @@ -870,7 +900,7 @@ Im _Zehnten Brief_, "Über den Handel", beschreibt Voltaire die französische Me ### Wahrheit erfordert Freiheit -Doch Frankreich mangelte es nicht an großen Geistern. Es ist wenig bekannt, aber Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, war zuallererst ein führender Denker, bevor er unter Ludwig XVI. zum Generalcontroller der Finanzen wurde. Er war der Autor einer meisterhaften Abhandlung über politische Ökonomie, _Reflexionen über die Bildung und Verteilung des Reichtums_ (1766), die _Der Wohlstand der Nationen_ von Adam Smith (1776) voranging. +Doch Frankreich mangelte es nicht an großen Geistern. Es ist wenig bekannt, aber Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, war zuallererst ein führender Denker, bevor er unter Ludwig XVI. zum Generalcontroller der Finanzen wurde. Er war der Autor einer meisterhaften Abhandlung über politische Ökonomie, _Reflexionen über die Bildung und Verteilung des Reichtums_ (1766), die _[Der Wohlstand der Nationen](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ von Adam Smith (1776) voranging. ![image](assets/de/052.webp) Seine frühen Schriften spiegeln sein Engagement für die Philosophie der Aufklärung wider. Im Jahr 1754 veröffentlichte er seine _Briefe über bürgerliche Toleranz_ und 1757 mehrere Artikel, die für _Die Enzyklopädie_ von Diderot und d'Alembert geschrieben wurden. @@ -888,6 +918,8 @@ Mit anderen Worten, tolerant zu sein bedeutet nicht, feindselig gegenüber Relig :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Die Ursprünge des Wirtschaftsliberalismus + Wirtschaftsliberalismus wird oft mit einer angelsächsischen Tradition in Verbindung gebracht, die von Adam Smith stammt, im Gegensatz zum "politischen Liberalismus", der angeblich aus der kontinentalen Aufklärung, insbesondere in Frankreich, stammt. Diese Ansicht ist falsch. ![image](assets/de/053.webp) @@ -951,6 +983,8 @@ Kurz gesagt, wenn jeder sein privates Interesse im Respekt vor dem Naturgesetz f :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Drei Ereignisse, die die Geschichte veränderten + 1776 ist ein Jahr, das in Geschichtsbüchern oft übersehen wird. Aber in drei Ländern, Frankreich, Schottland und Nordamerika, werden mehrere Ereignisse eine unauslöschliche Spur in der Geschichte der Freiheit hinterlassen. ### Die Schande von Turgot @@ -992,7 +1026,7 @@ Es handelt sich auch um eine Abhandlung über Philosophie, da sie zeigt, wie fre ### Ein Manifest für Freiheit in Amerika -1776 veröffentlichte ein Engländer namens Thomas Paine in Amerika eine scharfe Broschüre, die die englische Monarchie kritisierte und für die Unabhängigkeit der amerikanischen Kolonisten eintrat: _Common Sense_. +1776 veröffentlichte ein Engländer namens Thomas Paine in Amerika eine scharfe Broschüre, die die englische Monarchie kritisierte und für die Unabhängigkeit der amerikanischen Kolonisten eintrat: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/de/059.webp) @@ -1052,6 +1086,8 @@ Diese Idee der spontanen Ordnung würde zu einem Schlüsselkonzept in der Arbeit :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Säkularisierung und moderne Gesellschaft + Die große Neuheit dieser modernen Periode in der westlichen Geschichte ist das Aufkommen einer Gesellschaft, die sich außerhalb religiöser Abhängigkeit organisiert. Dies bedeutet nicht das Verschwinden religiösen Glaubens oder den Tod Gottes. Aber Gott wird zu einer privaten Angelegenheit, nicht mehr vermischt mit politischen Angelegenheiten. Es gibt kein Verschwinden der Religion, sondern eine Entthronung ihrer leitenden Rolle. Es wird zu einem System individueller Überzeugungen. Diese Säkularisierung der westlichen Welt geschah nicht über Nacht. Sie wurde durch Ideen vorbereitet. Wie so oft, steht die Philosophie an der Spitze großer kultureller Veränderungen. @@ -1130,7 +1166,7 @@ In Amerika gab es keinen wirtschaftlichen Dirigismus, noch eine monetäre Bankro Mit Rousseau und Robespierre wollten die Franzosen glauben, dass die Nation oder der allgemeine Wille unbegrenzte Macht hatte und alles rechtfertigte. Aus der Tatsache, dass das Volk regierte, wurde geschlossen, dass es alle Rechte hatte. Es gab offensichtlich einen Widerspruch zwischen den großen Prinzipien der Revolution und den Mitteln, die eingesetzt wurden, um sie triumphieren zu lassen. -Dies ist übrigens der Sinn der Bemerkung von Friedrich Hayek in seinem Buch _Die Verfassung der Freiheit_: +Dies ist übrigens der Sinn der Bemerkung von Friedrich Hayek in seinem Buch _[Die Verfassung der Freiheit](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Der entscheidende Faktor, der die Bemühungen der Revolution zugunsten der Förderung der individuellen Freiheit zunichte machte, war, dass sie die Illusion schuf, insofern alle Macht dem Volk übergeben worden war, seien alle Vorsichtsmaßnahmen gegen den Missbrauch dieser Macht unnötig geworden. @@ -1144,6 +1180,8 @@ Dies ist übrigens der Sinn der Bemerkung von Friedrich Hayek in seinem Buch _Di :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antike versus moderne Freiheit + Laut Benjamin Constant kann Freiheit in unseren modernen Gesellschaften nicht mehr so verstanden werden wie in den Gesellschaften der Antike als direkte Teilnahme an den Angelegenheiten der Stadt. ![image](assets/de/070.webp) @@ -1151,14 +1189,14 @@ Laut Benjamin Constant kann Freiheit in unseren modernen Gesellschaften nicht me ### Freiheit im Privatleben In der Antike war das Individuum in öffentlichen Angelegenheiten souverän, aber in all seinen privaten Beziehungen versklavt. Das Opfer der individuellen Freiheit wurde durch die Nutzung politischer Rechte kompensiert: das Recht, verschiedene Teile der Souveränität direkt auszuüben, in der öffentlichen Versammlung zu beraten, über Gesetze abzustimmen, Urteile zu fällen, Magistrate zu bewerten und zu beurteilen. Es handelt sich um eine politische und kollektive Freiheit: -Die Freiheit der Alten bestand aus aktiver und ständiger Teilnahme an der kollektiven Macht. Unsere Freiheit hingegen muss aus dem friedlichen Genuss privater Unabhängigkeit bestehen; daraus folgt, dass wir viel stärker als die Alten an unserer individuellen Unabhängigkeit hängen müssen. (_Über die Freiheit der Alten im Vergleich zu der der Modernen_ (1819)) +Die Freiheit der Alten bestand aus aktiver und ständiger Teilnahme an der kollektiven Macht. Unsere Freiheit hingegen muss aus dem friedlichen Genuss privater Unabhängigkeit bestehen; daraus folgt, dass wir viel stärker als die Alten an unserer individuellen Unabhängigkeit hängen müssen. (_[Über die Freiheit der Alten im Vergleich zu der der Modernen](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/de/071.webp) Moderne Freiheit ist bürgerliche Freiheit, die wirtschaftliche Freiheit einschließt und auf dem Recht auf Privatsphäre basiert. Es ist das Recht, keiner Willkür ausgesetzt zu sein, das Recht auf Meinungsäußerung, Versammlung, Bewegung, Glaubensfreiheit und Industrie. Es gibt keine Freiheit ohne die Möglichkeit, den eigenen Lebensstil und die eigenen Werte zu wählen, also keine Freiheit ohne die Möglichkeit, sich von der Gemeinschaft zurückzuziehen und folglich keine Freiheit ohne eine Begrenzung des Staates, um die Existenz dieses privaten Raumes zu ermöglichen. Es ist eine Freiheit, die dem entspricht, was Amerikaner als Bürgerrechte bezeichnen. Diese Definition von Freiheit findet sich bei John Stuart Mill: -> Die einzige Freiheit, die diesen Namen verdient, ist die, unser eigenes Gutes auf unsere eigene Weise zu verfolgen, solange wir nicht versuchen, anderen das ihre zu nehmen oder ihre Bemühungen, es zu erlangen, zu behindern. (...) Die Menschheit gewinnt mehr, indem sie jeder Person erlaubt, so zu leben, wie sie es für richtig hält, als indem sie sie zwingt, so zu leben, wie es anderen gut erscheint. (_Über die Freiheit_, 1859) +> Die einzige Freiheit, die diesen Namen verdient, ist die, unser eigenes Gutes auf unsere eigene Weise zu verfolgen, solange wir nicht versuchen, anderen das ihre zu nehmen oder ihre Bemühungen, es zu erlangen, zu behindern. (...) Die Menschheit gewinnt mehr, indem sie jeder Person erlaubt, so zu leben, wie sie es für richtig hält, als indem sie sie zwingt, so zu leben, wie es anderen gut erscheint. (_[Über die Freiheit](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/de/072.webp) @@ -1194,6 +1232,8 @@ Mit anderen Worten, in einer freien Gesellschaft ist es notwendig, eine strenge :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville und der demokratische Individualismus + Alexis de Tocqueville war ein scharfer Beobachter der Demokratie und ein Kritiker des demokratischen Individualismus. ![image](assets/de/074.webp) @@ -1269,6 +1309,8 @@ Betrachten Sie den Globus. Welches sind die glücklichsten, moralischsten und fr :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Die Kritik des 19. Jahrhunderts + Es war im 19. Jahrhundert, dass die Kritik am Kapitalismus, insbesondere die marxistische Kritik, entstand. ![image](assets/de/078.webp) @@ -1301,6 +1343,8 @@ Politische Revolution ist daher eine Illusion, so seine Ansicht, solange sie nic :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Die Antwort der Österreichischen Schule + Die Österreichische Schule der Nationalökonomie, gegründet von Carl Menger am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts, stand von Anfang an den Theorien von Karl Marx entgegen. ![image](assets/de/081.webp) @@ -1354,7 +1398,7 @@ Marxisten glauben, dass der Sozialismus, ein Wirtschaftssystem, in dem die Produ ![image](assets/de/085.webp) -Bereits 1922 demonstrierte Ludwig von Mises in seinem Buch _Sozialismus_, dass der Sozialismus zu weit verbreiteten Knappheiten führen würde, da zentrale Planer ohne das durch den Markt bereitgestellte Preissystem keine genauen wirtschaftlichen Kalkulationen anstellen könnten. +Bereits 1922 demonstrierte Ludwig von Mises in seinem Buch _[Sozialismus](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_, dass der Sozialismus zu weit verbreiteten Knappheiten führen würde, da zentrale Planer ohne das durch den Markt bereitgestellte Preissystem keine genauen wirtschaftlichen Kalkulationen anstellen könnten. ## Der Weg zur Knechtschaft @@ -1362,7 +1406,9 @@ Bereits 1922 demonstrierte Ludwig von Mises in seinem Buch _Sozialismus_, dass d :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmiert durch den Aufstieg des staatlichen Interventionismus in den Wirtschaften der westlichen Demokratien schrieb Hayek _Der Weg zur Knechtschaft_ als philosophische Kritik am Kollektivismus, sei es von rechts oder links. Dank des _Reader’s Digest_ in mehreren Millionen Exemplaren veröffentlicht, hat dieses Buch wesentlich zu Hayeks Ruhm in den Vereinigten Staaten beigetragen. +### Hayeks Warnung vor dem Kollektivismus + +Alarmiert durch den Aufstieg des staatlichen Interventionismus in den Wirtschaften der westlichen Demokratien schrieb Hayek _[Der Weg zur Knechtschaft](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ als philosophische Kritik am Kollektivismus, sei es von rechts oder links. Dank des _Reader’s Digest_ in mehreren Millionen Exemplaren veröffentlicht, hat dieses Buch wesentlich zu Hayeks Ruhm in den Vereinigten Staaten beigetragen. ![image](assets/de/086.webp) @@ -1405,13 +1451,15 @@ Zum Schluss fordert Hayek seine Zeitgenossen auf, sich von dem "Wahnsinn" und de :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Die keynesianische Revolution + Der Kapitalismus wird oft beschuldigt, die Quelle der Aufforderung zu sein: "wir müssen immer mehr produzieren", oder der Formel: "Konsum ist gut für das Wachstum." Diese Ideen stammen jedoch nicht aus dem traditionellen Kapitalismus, sondern aus dem Keynesianismus, der seit den 1930er Jahren die Wirtschaftswissenschaft und die politische Klasse dominiert hat. ![image](assets/de/088.webp) ### Die Analyse der Krise von 1929 -Veröffentlicht im Jahr 1936, fegte das Buch von John Maynard Keynes: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, alles auf seinem Weg hinweg. Indem er die Ursachen der Großen Depression und die Mittel zu deren Überwindung hinterfragt, beschreibt er ein neues wirtschaftliches Paradigma, das Generationen von Ökonomen und Politikern umwandeln würde. +Veröffentlicht im Jahr 1936, fegte das Buch von John Maynard Keynes: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, alles auf seinem Weg hinweg. Indem er die Ursachen der Großen Depression und die Mittel zu deren Überwindung hinterfragt, beschreibt er ein neues wirtschaftliches Paradigma, das Generationen von Ökonomen und Politikern umwandeln würde. ![image](assets/de/089.webp) @@ -1449,7 +1497,7 @@ Ab 1958 wird unter der Autorität von General de Gaulle eine Politik zur Korrekt ![image](assets/de/094.webp) -In _The Monetary Sin of the West_ (Die monetäre Sünde des Westens) schreibt Rueff 1971: +In _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ (Die monetäre Sünde des Westens) schreibt Rueff 1971: > Es ist durch das Haushaltsdefizit, dass die Menschen ihre Freiheit verlieren. @@ -1466,6 +1514,8 @@ Keine Religion hat sich so schnell auf der ganzen Welt verbreitet wie die der Be :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Geld und Zivilisation + Geld ist ein Werkzeug, das es Menschen ermöglicht hat, über den Tauschhandel hinauszugehen, zu sparen und in großem Maßstab durch den Markt zu koordinieren. Es hat die Spezialisierung der Arbeit, komparative Vorteile, Handelsgewinne, wirtschaftliche Berechnung ermöglicht. Ohne Geld gibt es keine moderne Zivilisation. ### Gold als globaler Standard @@ -1509,7 +1559,7 @@ Im Februar 1965 hatte General de Gaulle, direkt inspiriert von Rueff, während e ### Ein Geldmarkt ohne Staatsmonopol ist möglich -1976 schlug Hayek eine Alternative zum Monopol des Staates auf die Währungsschöpfung vor: Wettbewerb zwischen Währungen. In seinem Buch, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Die Entnationalisierung des Geldes_), stellte er sich einen Geldmarkt ohne Staatsmonopol vor, in dem mehrere private Währungen existieren würden. Die Schaffung und Verwaltung verschiedener Währungen durch private Einheiten würde es den Individuen ermöglichen, die stabilste und zuverlässigste Währung zu wählen, was den Wettbewerb und die Disziplin unter den Emittenten fördern würde. +1976 schlug Hayek eine Alternative zum Monopol des Staates auf die Währungsschöpfung vor: Wettbewerb zwischen Währungen. In seinem Buch, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Die Entnationalisierung des Geldes](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), stellte er sich einen Geldmarkt ohne Staatsmonopol vor, in dem mehrere private Währungen existieren würden. Die Schaffung und Verwaltung verschiedener Währungen durch private Einheiten würde es den Individuen ermöglichen, die stabilste und zuverlässigste Währung zu wählen, was den Wettbewerb und die Disziplin unter den Emittenten fördern würde. ![image](assets/de/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/en.md b/courses/phi101/en.md index 38c818f54a2..ccf929f922f 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/en.md +++ b/courses/phi101/en.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ From Antiquity through the Enlightenment, freedom ascended as societies embraced :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introduction to the Course + Welcome to PHI101! This course invites you to explore the evolution of freedom throughout history by analyzing the major schools of thought that have shaped it. You will explore how the concept of freedom has evolved over the centuries, either in opposition to or in collaboration with power, through a historical journey from Antiquity to contemporary debates. @@ -57,18 +59,20 @@ Ready to embark on this unique philosophical journey on the quest for freedom? L :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Why Study the History of Freedom? + Why title this course: A History of Freedom? Because we need to understand the relationship between ideas and events to judge our era more effectively and act with discernment. It is in the past that we find the elements for a better understanding of what freedom is and the reasons why we must cherish it. -> When the past no longer illuminates the future, the spirit walks in darkness (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracy in America_). +When the past no longer illuminates the future, the spirit walks in darkness (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracy in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). -![image](assets/en/001.webp) +![When the past no longer illuminates the future, the spirit walks in darkness](assets/en/001.webp) At the same time, Auguste Comte said, "One does not fully know a science until one knows its history." This truth could be applied to the idea of freedom. Indeed, freedom is not a new idea. It is a legacy passed down through generations. The entire history of civilization bears witness to a relentless struggle for freedom. -![image](assets/en/002.webp) +![Delacroix, Liberty guiding the people](assets/en/002.webp) -However, the goal of this course is not only to shed light on the history of freedom, but also—and more importantly—to develop critical thinking. Indeed, history alone is not enough to judge the present and the future. It needs to be accompanied by critical reflection and a judgment on past mistakes. This is the contribution of philosophy. That is why I have titled this course 'A Philosophical History of Freedom.' It is indeed about exploring how philosophers have conceived of freedom throughout the ages. +However, the goal of this course is not only to shed light on the history of freedom, but also, and more importantly, to develop critical thinking. Indeed, history alone is not enough to judge the present and the future. It needs to be accompanied by critical reflection and a judgment on past mistakes. This is the contribution of philosophy. That is why I have titled this course 'A Philosophical History of Freedom.' It is indeed about exploring how philosophers have conceived of freedom throughout the ages. ### The task of philosophy @@ -76,21 +80,21 @@ From its origins, it has had a dual purpose: - Firstly, it is to give meaning to vague and confused concepts. What is good, true, just, beautiful? Just as history's function is to illuminate the past, so philosophy is the art of defining concepts correctly. That is why we need to start this course by understanding what freedom is. -![image](assets/en/003.webp) +![Statue of Socrates](assets/en/003.webp) Freedom is a concept that encompasses a multitude of variants, which are as many possible declinations of the same reality: political freedom, economic freedom, freedom of conscience, freedom of speech, religious freedom, freedom of association, and so on. What reality are we talking about? -Freedom can be defined as the ability to make choices over one's affairs. It is an inherent faculty of the human being. It is a reality that is essentially individual. Only the individual can think and act, that is, make choices. This does not mean that the individual is alone, nor does it imply that he owes nothing to others. On the contrary, he lives in society and must cooperate with others for his good. But everyone remains free to cooperate or not and must assume the responsibility for their choices. +**Freedom can be defined as the ability to make choices** over one's affairs. It is an inherent faculty of the human being. It is a reality that is essentially individual. Only the individual can think and act, that is, make choices. This does not mean that the individual is alone, nor does it imply that he owes nothing to others. On the contrary, he lives in society and must cooperate with others for his good. But everyone remains free to cooperate or not and must assume the responsibility for their choices. -The notion of responsibility is corollary to freedom because every choice has consequences. The responsible person is the one who assumes the costs of their own decisions and does not shift this cost onto others. In other words, freedom is demanding. It is a moral notion that implies both rights and duties towards others, including the duty to respect their freedom. +**The notion of responsibility is corollary to freedom** because every choice has consequences. The responsible person is the one who assumes the costs of their own decisions and does not shift this cost onto others. In other words, freedom is demanding. It is a moral notion that implies both rights and duties towards others, including the duty to respect their freedom. Secondly, philosophy is normative, whereas history is merely descriptive. Thus, political philosophy is distinct from political science. Political philosophy is normative, meaning it prescribes values and judges human actions by a criterion of justice. On the other hand, political scientists are content to describe regimes and make the history of institutions, without making value judgments. ### Philosophy of freedom and philosophy of power -From this perspective, there are only two kinds of political philosophies: the philosophy of freedom and the philosophy of power. +From this perspective, **there are only two kinds of political philosophies**: the philosophy of freedom and the philosophy of power. -![image](assets/en/004.webp) +![Take by force or exchange freely](assets/en/004.webp) - The philosophy of freedom is based on the natural right of property and asserts that the sole purpose of the law is to protect private property and contracts. Everyone should be able to do as they wish with what belongs to them, provided they do not harm anyone. It is a philosophy that defends equal freedom for all to dispose of oneself and one's property under the condition of responsibility. It is the philosophy of the free market. - The philosophy of power justifies the authority of certain collective entities, such as the State or society, to decide the limits to be placed on the market and property, and therefore on freedom. Within this framework, it is the law's responsibility to organize the economy, health, housing, culture, education, and other aspects of society. This constructivist philosophy has always had its defenders, in the name of collective interest, equality, protection, and well-being. @@ -101,15 +105,17 @@ Those who defend the first philosophy in France are the Physiocrats, with Franç > It is not because there are laws that there are properties, but because there are properties that there are laws. (_Property and Law_). -![image](assets/en/005.webp) +![Portrait of Frédéric Bastiat](assets/en/005.webp) For Turgot and Say, disciples of Quesnay, there exists a natural law, independent of the whims of legislators, which is valid for all men and predates any society. This philosophy comes directly from medieval scholasticism, the Stoics, Aristotle, and Sophocles. The unwritten laws come before written laws and superior to them because they stem from human nature and reason. -![image](assets/en/006.webp) +![Sophocles' Antigone](assets/en/006.webp) + The second philosophy is found among authors such as Rousseau, Robespierre, or Kant, who embody the republican tradition, in which the sovereignty of the general will is considered the true source of law. A contemporary of Quesnay, Rousseau is an anti-physiocrat. For him, the legislator must organize society, like a mechanic who invents a machine from inert matter. -![image](assets/en/007.webp) -> "He who dares to undertake the establishment of a people," says Rousseau, "must feel capable of changing, so to speak, human nature, of transforming each individual who, by himself, is a perfect and solitary whole, into part of a greater whole from which this individual receives, in a way, his life and being." (_Social Contract_) +![Statue of Jean-Jacques Rousseau](assets/en/007.webp) + +> "He who dares to undertake the establishment of a people," says Rousseau, "must feel capable of changing, so to speak, human nature, of transforming each individual who, by himself, is a perfect and solitary whole, into part of a greater whole from which this individual receives, in a way, his life and being." (_[Social Contract](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) From this perspective, the legislator's mission is to organize, modify, or even abolish property if deemed necessary. For Rousseau, property is not natural but conventional, like society itself. In turn, Robespierre establishes the principle that "Property is the right of every citizen to enjoy and dispose of the portion of goods guaranteed to him by law." There is no natural right to property; there are only an indefinite number of possible and contingent arrangements. @@ -119,14 +125,19 @@ From this perspective, the legislator's mission is to organize, modify, or even :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### The Myth of the Providential Legislator + When one opens textbooks, Bastiat noted, one learns that humanity would be doomed to nothingness without the intervention of power: -> "It suffices to open, almost at random, a book of philosophy, politics, or history to see how deeply rooted in our country is this idea, born of classical studies and the mother of Socialism, that humanity is an inert matter receiving from power life, organization, morality, and wealth; — or worse, that humanity itself tends towards its degradation and is only stopped on this slope by the mysterious hand of the Legislator." ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). +> "It suffices to open, almost at random, a book of philosophy, politics, or history to see how deeply rooted in our country is this idea, born of classical studies and the mother of Socialism, that humanity is an inert matter receiving from power life, organization, morality, and wealth; or worse, that humanity itself tends towards its degradation and is only stopped on this slope by the mysterious hand of the Legislator." ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). In other words, the cultural prejudice dominating Western philosophy as well as historiography is that we owe everything to power: freedom, health, education, security, and prosperity. Humanity is described as "inert matter" that takes shape thanks to the legislator. But the reality of power is quite different according to Bastiat. Power is oppression. He writes: -Open the annals of humanity at random! Consult ancient or modern history, sacred or profane, and ask yourself where all these wars of race, class, nations, and families come from! You will always get this unvarying answer: From the thirst for power. ([_Parliamentary Incompatibilities_](http://bastiat.org/fr/incompatibilites_parlementaires.html)) + +> Open the annals of humanity at random! Consult ancient or modern history, sacred or profane, and ask yourself where all these wars of race, class, nations, and families come from! You will always get this unvarying answer: From the thirst for power. +> +> ([_Parliamentary Incompatibilities_](http://bastiat.org/fr/incompatibilites_parlementaires.html)) It is the thirst for power that is at the root of all forms of oppression in history. In a letter to Mrs. Chevreux, dated June 23, 1850, Bastiat outlines the phases of oppression: "Times of struggle, over who will seize the State; and times of truce which will be the ephemeral reign of triumphant oppression, a harbinger of a new struggle." First, the conquest of power through war, then the establishment of a State that subsists by plundering the wealth of its citizens. @@ -136,7 +147,7 @@ History is thus a struggle between two principles: freedom and oppression. ### What is oppression? -![image](assets/en/008.webp) +![Frédéric Bastiat, Property and Plunder](assets/en/008.webp) In a word, it is plunder. Bastiat outlines the primary forms of plunder emanating from the ruling elites: war, slavery, theocracy, and monopoly. Indeed, according to him: "There are only two ways to acquire the necessities for the preservation, embellishment, and improvement of life: PRODUCTION and PLUNDER." ([_The Physiology of Plunder_](http://bastiat.org/fr/physiologie_de_la_spoliation.html)) @@ -144,7 +155,7 @@ What is the difference between production and plunder? Here is Bastiat's answer: > To produce, one must direct all one's faculties towards the domination of nature; for it is nature that must be fought, tamed, and enslaved. That is why iron converted into a plough is the emblem of production. To plunder, one must direct all one's faculties towards the domination of men; for it is they who must be fought, killed, or enslaved. That is why iron converted into a sword is the emblem of plunder. ([_Economic Harmonies_](http://bastiat.org/fr/guerre.html), War). -In other words, production is a form of power over nature. Plunder is power over men. However, there are two forms of plunder: legal and illegal. +In other words, **production is a form of power over nature. Plunder is power over men.** However, there are two forms of plunder: legal and illegal. Illegal plunder is the theft or crime committed by one citizen against another. It is the action of the bandit or the swindler. However, the worst form of plunder is that which is accomplished by law: "There are people who think that plunder loses all its immorality provided it is legal. As for me, I cannot imagine a more aggravating circumstance." ([_What is Seen and What is Not Seen_](http://bastiat.org/fr/cqovecqonvp.html#RESTRICTION)). Bastiat tells us there are still two forms of legal plunder: @@ -157,15 +168,21 @@ In [_The Physiology of Plunder_](http://bastiat.org/fr/physiologie_de_la_spoliat ### History of Plunder -![image](assets/en/009.webp) +![Statue of Frédéric Bastiat in Mugron, Landes](assets/en/009.webp) -Historically, ruling elites have always lived off plunder. Bastiat notes: +Historically, **ruling elites have always lived off plunder.** Bastiat notes: > Force applied to plunder is the basis of human annals. To trace its history would be to reproduce almost entirely the history of all peoples: Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Goths, Franks, Huns, Turks, Arabs, Mongols, Tartars, not to mention the Spaniards in America, the English in India, the French in Africa, the Russians in Asia, etc. > > ([_Economic Sophisms_](http://bastiat.org/fr/conclusion_sophismes.html), Conclusion of the first volume). -> Plunder, in its most brutal form, armed with torch and sword, fills the annals of human history. What are the names that summarize history? Cyrus, Sesostris, Alexander, Scipio, Caesar, Attila, Tamerlan, Muhammad, Pizarro, William the Conqueror; this is naive plunder through conquests. To it belong the laurels, monuments, statues, and triumphal arches. ([_Economic Harmonies_](http://bastiat.org/fr/conclusion_eo_harmonies.html), conclusion of the original edition). -> The history of the world is the history of how one group of people plundered others, often systematically, through war, slavery, and theocracy. Nowadays, it is the monopoly, that is, economic privileges distributed by the State to its clients. + +Or again: + +> Plunder, in its most brutal form, armed with torch and sword, fills the annals of human history. What are the names that summarize history? Cyrus, Sesostris, Alexander, Scipio, Caesar, Attila, Tamerlan, Muhammad, Pizarro, William the Conqueror; this is naive plunder through conquests. To it belong the laurels, monuments, statues, and triumphal arches. +> +> ([_Economic Harmonies_](http://bastiat.org/fr/conclusion_eo_harmonies.html), conclusion of the original edition). + +The history of the world is the history of how one group of people plundered others, often systematically, through war, slavery, and theocracy. Nowadays, it is the monopoly, that is, economic privileges distributed by the State to its clients. A few days before he died in Rome in 1850, Bastiat confided to his friend Prosper Paillottet: @@ -179,9 +196,11 @@ A few days before he died in Rome in 1850, Bastiat confided to his friend Prospe :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### History Written by the Victors + It is known that the victors write history. Attention is often focused on the conquest of power, on the lives of leaders in power, and on the conflicts that oppose them to those who wish to take their place. -![image](assets/en/010.webp) +![A picture of Lord Acton](assets/en/010.webp) This is particularly true of textbooks intended for public schools and written by professors employed by the State. This is not the case for a work in two volumes written by a historian from Cambridge in the 19th century, [Lord Acton](https://www.lesbelleslettres.com/livre/9782251447858/le-pouvoir-corrompt). His full name is John Emerich Edward Dalberg, Baron of Acton (1834-1902). He is the author of _History of Liberty in Antiquity and Christianity_. His work is considered one of the most important on the subject, and he dedicated a large part of his career to it. His work, although unfinished, is a powerful warning against the dangers of power abuse, and his advocacy for freedom and individual responsibility remains relevant today. @@ -192,27 +211,29 @@ This author is best known for his maxim: "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute p ### Acton's Thesis -![image](assets/en/011.webp) +![Murray Rothbard, The Ethics of Liberty](assets/en/011.webp) -For Acton, the conflict between liberty and power is the central theme of human history, and liberty is the driving force of progress and the evolution of societies. Acton sought to understand the factors that contributed to the rise of liberty in the West. His goal was to identify the conditions necessary for its preservation and development. He studied philosophical ideas, social structures, and political contexts that favored their emergence over time. +For Acton, **the conflict between liberty and power is the central theme** of human history, and liberty is the driving force of progress and the evolution of societies. Acton sought to understand the factors that contributed to the rise of liberty in the West. His goal was to identify the conditions necessary for its preservation and development. He studied philosophical ideas, social structures, and political contexts that favored their emergence over time. -His central thesis is that "liberty is established by the conflict of powers." According to Acton, for centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Catholic Church was the only force capable of challenging the authority of feudal lords, monarchs, and emperors. This power struggle between the Church and the State proved crucial for the rise of liberty. Europe had a strong Church and a weak state, due to the ongoing quarrel in the Middle Ages between popes and kings. In contrast, China had a weak deity and a strong bureaucratic power. +His central thesis is that **"liberty is established by the conflict of powers."** According to Acton, for centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Catholic Church was the only force capable of challenging the authority of feudal lords, monarchs, and emperors. This power struggle between the Church and the State proved crucial for the rise of liberty. Europe had a strong Church and a weak state, due to the ongoing quarrel in the Middle Ages between popes and kings. In contrast, China had a weak deity and a strong bureaucratic power. > By liberty, I mean the assurance that every man will be protected, when he does what he believes to be his duty, against the influence of authority and majorities, of custom and opinion. The State is competent to set duties and to distinguish between good and evil only in its immediate sphere. > > (Lord Acton) -> In other words, freedom is the right for individuals to follow their conscience, and it is not the state's role to dictate a person's conduct in philosophical, moral, and religious matters. -> Friedrich Hayek had initially considered naming the Mont Pelerin Society the "Acton-Tocqueville Society," in tribute to two thinkers he deeply admired: Lord Acton and Alexis de Tocqueville. Ultimately, it was the name of the location where the Society's first meeting was held, Mont Pelerin in Switzerland, that was chosen. + +In other words, freedom is the right for individuals to follow their conscience, and it is not the state's role to dictate a person's conduct in philosophical, moral, and religious matters. + +Friedrich Hayek had initially considered naming the Mont Pelerin Society the "Acton-Tocqueville Society," in tribute to two thinkers he deeply admired: Lord Acton and Alexis de Tocqueville. Ultimately, it was the name of the location where the Society's first meeting was held, Mont Pelerin in Switzerland, that was chosen. ### Voltaire and Condorcet -But the idea that freedom in Europe was born from internal struggles among various claimants to power, preventing the establishment of absolute domination, is not unique to Acton. It can already be found in thinkers such as Voltaire and Condorcet. +But the idea that **freedom in Europe was born from internal struggles** among various claimants to power, preventing the establishment of absolute domination, is not unique to Acton. It can already be found in thinkers such as Voltaire and Condorcet. Thus, Voltaire, in his [_Philosophical Letters_](https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Lettres_philosophiques/Lettre_6), attributes English freedom to conflicts between kings and nobles, which prevented any excessive concentration of power. And he notes: > If there were only one religion in England, its despotism would be to be feared; if there were only two, they would cut each other's throats; but there are thirty, and they live in peace and happiness. ([On the Presbyterians](https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Lettres_philosophiques/Lettre_6)) -![image](assets/en/012.webp) +![Portrait of Voltaire](assets/en/012.webp) Condorcet, in his [_Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind_](https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Esquisse_d%E2%80%99un_tableau_historique_des_progr%C3%A8s_de_l%E2%80%99esprit_humain), attributes the decentralized structure of power in Italy to the rivalry between the pope and the emperor, which allowed many independent city-states to flourish. @@ -224,8 +245,11 @@ This thesis is also found in a monumental work dating from 1983: _Law and Revolu :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### The Socialist View of History + Another perspective on history does exist, however. It has been quite successful and has long enjoyed the support of Western intellectuals and representatives from the Global South. This is the socialist and Marxist view of history. -![image](assets/en/013.webp) + +![Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto](assets/en/013.webp) It explains Europe's extraordinary growth primarily through the progress of technology combined with the "primitive accumulation" of capital, stemming from imperialism, slavery, the triangular trade, the expropriation of small peasants, and the exploitation of the working class. The conclusion is clear. This exceptional European growth was achieved at the expense of millions and millions of slaves and oppressed individuals. @@ -243,8 +267,9 @@ This analysis reflects a misunderstanding of surplus value and the cooperative a ### The Industrial Revolution in Question -In fact, the Marxist analysis distorts the historical reality of the Industrial Revolution. Ludwig von Mises clarified this issue in his economics treatise [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (see especially the chapter titled [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) as well as in a series of lectures published under the title: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Also worth reading, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [here](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) and [here](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). -![image](assets/en/014.webp) +In fact, the Marxist analysis distorts the historical reality of the Industrial Revolution. Ludwig von Mises clarified this issue in his economics treatise [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (see especially the chapter titled [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) as well as in a series of lectures published under the title: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Also worth reading, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [here](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) and [here](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). + +![A picture of Ludwig von Mises](assets/en/014.webp) Mises explains that jobs in factories, although miserable by our standards, represented the best possible opportunity for workers of the time. @@ -255,12 +280,14 @@ Let's read an excerpt from _Human Action_: Mises adds that the improvement of the human condition was thus made possible by the accumulation of capital: > The radical change in situation that has conferred upon the Western masses the present standard of living (a high standard of living indeed, compared to what it was in pre-capitalist times, and to what it is in Soviet Russia) was the effect of capital accumulation through saving and wise investment by far-sighted entrepreneurs. No technological improvement would have been achievable if the additional material capital required for the practical use of new inventions had not been made feasible by saving beforehand. -> Regarding Marxist historiography, we can also refer to Friedrich Hayek in _Capitalism and the Historians_ (University of Chicago Press, 1954) and his chapter titled "History and Politics". According to Hayek, it was not industrialization that made workers miserable, as the dark legend of capitalism propagated by Marxism claims. He notes: + +Regarding Marxist historiography, we can also refer to Friedrich Hayek in _Capitalism and the Historians_ (University of Chicago Press, 1954) and his chapter titled "History and Politics". According to Hayek, it was not industrialization that made workers miserable, as the dark legend of capitalism propagated by Marxism claims. He notes: + > The real history of the connection between capitalism and the rise of the proletariat is almost the opposite of what these theories of the expropriation of the masses suggest. Before the Industrial Revolution, most people lived in rural societies and depended on agriculture for their survival. They had little to sell in the market, which limited their opportunities and their standard of living. Everyone expected to live in absolute poverty and envisioned a similar fate for their descendants. No one was outraged by a situation that seemed to be inevitable. -![image](assets/en/015.webp) +![Capitalism and the Historians , edited by F. A. Hayek](assets/en/015.webp) With the advent of industrialization, new opportunities emerged, leading to a growing demand for labor. For the first time, people without land or significant resources could sell their labor to factories and manufacturers in exchange for a wage, thereby ensuring future security. @@ -270,15 +297,15 @@ This is how Hayek remarks, "economic suffering became both more visible and seem Therefore, the worker was not exploited, even if wages were low, due to the abundance of labor fleeing the countryside. -In reality, exploitation only makes sense as an aggression against private property. In this sense, exploitation is always the act of the State. The State is the only institution that obtains its revenues through coercion, that is, by force. Thus, the real exploitation, as we have seen with Bastiat, is that of the productive classes by the state officials themselves. It would be more accurate to say that the history of all societies up to our days is nothing but the history of the struggle between plunderers and the productive classes. +In reality, **exploitation only makes sense as an aggression against private property.** In this sense, exploitation is always the act of the State. The State is the only institution that obtains its revenues through coercion, that is, by force. Thus, the real exploitation, as we have seen with Bastiat, is that of the productive classes by the state officials themselves. It would be more accurate to say that the history of all societies up to our days is nothing but the history of the struggle between plunderers and the productive classes. ### The "European Miracle" -Subsequently, a more nuanced historical analysis than that of Marx allows us to challenge the idea of a predatory Europe, which owes its success solely to imperialism and slavery. By examining comparative economic history, some contemporary historians have sought the origins of Europe's development in what distinguished it from other major civilizations, particularly those of China, India, and Islam. These characteristics have been explored by [David Landes](https://www.eyrolles.com/Entreprise/Livre/richesse-et-pauvrete-des-nations-9782226110381/), [Jean Baechler](https://academiesciencesmoralesetpolitiques.fr/publications/publications-de-lacademie/jean-baechler/), [François Crouzet](https://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2010-4-page-219.htm), and [Douglass North](https://www.iedm.org/fr/65134-douglass-north-l-un-des-economistes-les-plus-originaux/). These researchers have attempted to understand what is referred to as the "European miracle." They focused their attention on the fact that Europe was a mosaic of divided and competing jurisdictions, where, after the fall of Rome, no central political power was capable of imposing its will. +Subsequently, a more nuanced historical analysis than that of Marx allows us to challenge the idea of a predatory Europe, which owes its success solely to imperialism and slavery. By examining comparative economic history, some contemporary historians have sought the origins of Europe's development in what distinguished it from other major civilizations, particularly those of China, India, and Islam. These characteristics have been explored by [David Landes](https://www.eyrolles.com/Entreprise/Livre/richesse-et-pauvrete-des-nations-9782226110381/), [Jean Baechler](https://academiesciencesmoralesetpolitiques.fr/publications/publications-de-lacademie/jean-baechler/), [François Crouzet](https://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2010-4-page-219.htm), and [Douglass North](https://www.iedm.org/fr/65134-douglass-north-l-un-des-economistes-les-plus-originaux/). These researchers have attempted to understand what is referred to as the "European miracle." They focused their attention on the fact that **Europe was a mosaic of divided and competing jurisdictions**, where, after the fall of Rome, no central political power was capable of imposing its will. As Jean Baechler, a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, says in _The Origins of Capitalism_ (1971): -![image](assets/en/016.webp) +![Jean Baechler, Capitalism](assets/en/016.webp) > The first condition for the maximization of economic efficiency is the liberation of civil society from the State (...) The expansion of capitalism owes its origin and raison d'être to political anarchy. @@ -293,9 +320,11 @@ In conclusion to this chapter, Europe's economic and cultural takeoff was not du :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -In the last chapter of _Anatomy of the State_ (translated into French as _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, by Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard proposes a theory of history. This very short chapter is titled 'History: A Race Between State Power and Social Power.' According to Rothbard, history can be understood as a perpetual conflict between two fundamental principles: +### State Power versus Social Power + +In the last chapter of _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (translated into French as _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, by Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard proposes a theory of history. This very short chapter is titled 'History: A Race Between State Power and Social Power.' According to Rothbard, history can be understood as a perpetual conflict between two fundamental principles: -![image](assets/en/017.webp) +![Murray Rothbard, The Anatomy of the State](assets/en/017.webp) - Peaceful cooperation and production, which represent voluntary exchange and the creation of wealth through labor and innovation. - Coercive exploitation and predation, embodied by the domination of the State, which appropriates the fruits of individuals' labor by force. @@ -307,12 +336,12 @@ Referring to Albert J. Nock, Rothbard uses the terms "social power" and "state p ### The State as a Parasite -Rothbard considers the State as a parasite that lives at the expense of the productive society. It seizes "command posts" strategically to appropriate wealth and power. Monopoly of force, justice, education, and infrastructure. And he adds, "In the modern economy, money is the essential command post." +Rothbard considers **the State as a parasite that lives at the expense** of the productive society. It seizes "command posts" strategically to appropriate wealth and power. Monopoly of force, justice, education, and infrastructure. And he adds, "In the modern economy, money is the essential command post." For Rothbard, the principle of freedom should also apply to money. If we are in favor of liberty in other sectors, if we want to protect property and the person against the intrusion of the State, our most urgent task must be to explore the possibility of a free money market. (See on this point his essay: _State, What Have You Done with Our Money?_ Translation by Stéphane Couvreur for the Institut Coppet, 2011). ### The Failure of Attempts to Limit the State -Rothbard warns against the idea that written constitutions, by themselves, could guarantee freedom and the limitation of power: +Rothbard warns against the idea that **written constitutions, by themselves, could guarantee freedom** and the limitation of power: > The last centuries were times when men tried to impose constitutional and other limits on the State, only to find that such limits, like all other attempts, had failed. Of all the many forms that regimes took over the centuries, of all the concepts and institutions that were tried, none succeeded in keeping the State under control. @@ -320,9 +349,9 @@ A written constitution certainly has many advantages, but it is a serious mistak ### The 20th Century: A Century of Retreat -![image](assets/en/018.webp) +![State abuse kills](assets/en/018.webp) -According to Rothbard, history is not a linear process, but rather an oscillation between the advancement of social power and the resurgence of control by the State: +According to Rothbard, **history is not a linear process, but rather an oscillation** between the advancement of social power and the resurgence of control by the State: - Periods of freedom: when social power flourishes, freedom, peace, and prosperity increase. - Periods of state domination: when the State gains the upper hand, leading to oppression, war, and regression. @@ -330,9 +359,10 @@ According to Rothbard, history is not a linear process, but rather an oscillatio Between the 17th and 19th centuries, in many Western countries, there were periods of accelerated social progress and a corresponding increase in freedom, peace, and material well-being. But Rothbard reminds us that the 20th century was marked by a resurgence of State power, with dire consequences: an increase in slavery, war, and destruction. > During this century, the human race faces, once again, the virulent reign of the State; the State now armed with the creative power of man, confiscated and perverted for its ends. -> What is a free society, after all? It's a society without a monopoly. In his work of political philosophy, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard answers: "a society in which there is no legal possibility of coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual." This is why, according to him, political philosophy, which must define the principles of a just society, boils down to one single question: "Who legitimately owns what?" -> ![image](assets/en/019.webp) +What is a free society, after all? It's a society without a monopoly. In his work of political philosophy, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard answers: "a society in which there is no legal possibility of coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual." This is why, according to him, political philosophy, which must define the principles of a just society, boils down to one single question: "Who legitimately owns what?" + +![Murray Rothbard, The Ethics of Liberty](assets/en/019.webp) For Rothbard, social order can prevail if it is the product of the generalization of contractual procedures for the free exchange of property rights, achieved by privatizing all economic activities and even sovereign functions (such as central banks and courts), and by resorting to competition among protection agencies. @@ -352,16 +382,19 @@ And he adds: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### The Legacy of Athenian Democracy + The experience of Athenian democracy has left a lasting mark on the history of political thought and continues to inspire ideals of democracy and citizen participation in today's world. -![image](assets/en/020.webp) +![Painting of Athens in ancient times](assets/en/020.webp) Athenian democracy was characterized by lively public debates on city affairs, which primarily took place in the agora, the city's marketplace. This mode of operation, based on reason and critical discussion, sharply contrasted with earlier practices where laws and customs were considered sacred and immutable, handed down by ancestors and protected by the gods. ### The birth of politics with the city Athenian democracy represents a significant departure from tradition. Indeed, in earlier societies, there could not be "politics" in the sense of a discussion about social rules, since these were imposed in a transcendent manner by myth. -![image](assets/en/021.webp) + +![Pericles in the agora](assets/en/021.webp) Historian Jean-Pierre Vernant writes: @@ -369,7 +402,7 @@ Historian Jean-Pierre Vernant writes: > > (Jean Pierre Vernant, _The Origins of Greek Thought_, Paris, P.U.F, 1962) -![image](assets/en/022.webp) +![Jean-Pierre Vernant, The Origins of Greek Thought](assets/en/022.webp) The Greek word "polis," which gives rise to the English word "politics," refers to a city-state. When Aristotle writes that "man is by nature a political animal," it does not mean he is made for power. By politics, he refers to the faculty that men have to deliberate in the public square to determine what is just and unjust. @@ -377,7 +410,7 @@ This novelty is based on the fundamental distinction between two terms in the Gr - _Phusis_ is the law of nature (which gives the word "physics" in French). - _Nomos_ is human law (a term found in the word "autonomy," which means "to obey one's law"). - The City emerges with the idea that the law (nomos) is of human origin, that it can be freely modified by humans, unlike nature, and can apply to all. The Greeks then became aware of the autonomy of the social and political order in relation to the natural order. + The City emerges with the idea that **the law (nomos) is of human origin**, that it can be freely modified by humans, unlike nature, and can apply to all. The Greeks then became aware of the autonomy of the social and political order in relation to the natural order. This marks the appearance of politics: the ongoing discussion about the very rules of social life. From now on, problems will be resolved through concerted action, rather than by an immutable, sacred order. And Jean-Pierre Vernant adds: @@ -388,9 +421,9 @@ And Jean-Pierre Vernant adds: The intentional action of the gods does not produce social harmony, but rather by the obedience of all citizens to the same impersonal law. Power is no longer the affair of priests. It has become an affair of all. Thus emerges the notion of equality before the law: "_isonomia_," but also rhetoric. Mastery of speech was essential to convince one's fellow citizens in assemblies and courts. -![image](assets/en/023.webp) +![Statue of Aristotle](assets/en/023.webp) -For Aristotle, tyranny is obedience to a man, and freedom is obedience to the law. He is credited with this quote: +For Aristotle, **tyranny is obedience to a man, and freedom is obedience to the law**. He is credited with this quote: > To desire the rule of law is to expect the exclusive reign of reason. To choose instead the rule of a man is to add that of a wild beast, for desire and anger distort the judgment of rulers, even if they are the best of men. @@ -399,7 +432,7 @@ According to him, laws, being impersonal and permanent, guarantee justice and eq Cicero, the renowned Roman orator and philosopher of the 1st century BC, adopted this idea: "We are slaves of the laws so that we may be free" (_De Republica_, Book III, Chapter 13). In this passage, Cicero develops an argument in favor of a republic governed by laws, rather than by one man or a small group of men. The concept of the republic originates from Greek philosophy. It has often been contrasted with democracy, deemed too risky. Plato titled his main work of political philosophy: _The Republic_, and he judges democracy very harshly. When the people govern, there is a strong risk of imposing the law of their desires and confusing the good with the pleasant. Hence, the tragic death of Socrates, condemned to death by a popular jury, was manipulated by the sophists. Plato learned all the lessons from this. -![image](assets/en/024.webp) +![Plato, Republic](assets/en/024.webp) Aristotle would use the term "republic" to designate a just constitution, one that aims for the common interest and treats citizens as free men. A true regime of freedom is one where the law is general, equal for all, anonymous, and not a personal command. @@ -412,11 +445,12 @@ It can be said that the Greeks invented the concept of political freedom as a co Herodotus, in his _Historia_, and Aeschylus, in his tragedy _The Persians_, brilliantly illustrate the contrast between the absolute and tyrannical monarchy of Xerxes and the spirit of freedom among the Greeks. These people, characterized by the absence of masters and the refusal to submit to slavery by barbarians, no matter how numerous, find their strength in the law, the "nomos," their true master that guarantees their freedom. And this law emanates from the will of all. According to Jacqueline de Romilly: -The Greeks themselves have measured this originality and became aware of it at the beginning of the 5th century, in the shock that opposed them to the Persian invaders. And the first fact that struck them was that there was a political difference between them and their adversaries, which commanded everything else. The Persians obeyed an absolute sovereign, who was their master, whom they feared, and before whom they prostrated themselves; these practices were not common in Greece. There is an astonishing dialogue in Herodotus, which opposes Xerxes to a former king of Sparta. This king announces to Xerxes that the Greeks will not yield because Greece always fights against enslavement to a master. It will fight, no matter the number of its adversaries. For, if the Greeks are free, "they are not free in everything: they have a master, the law, which they fear even more than your subjects fear you." -(_Ancient Greece at the Discovery of Freedom, Paris, Editions de Fallois, 1989_) +> The Greeks themselves have measured this originality and became aware of it at the beginning of the 5th century, in the shock that opposed them to the Persian invaders. And the first fact that struck them was that there was a political difference between them and their adversaries, which commanded everything else. The Persians obeyed an absolute sovereign, who was their master, whom they feared, and before whom they prostrated themselves; these practices were not common in Greece. There is an astonishing dialogue in Herodotus, which opposes Xerxes to a former king of Sparta. This king announces to Xerxes that the Greeks will not yield because Greece always fights against enslavement to a master. It will fight, no matter the number of its adversaries. For, if the Greeks are free, "they are not free in everything: they have a master, the law, which they fear even more than your subjects fear you." +> +> (_Ancient Greece at the Discovery of Freedom, Paris, Editions de Fallois, 1989_) -![image](assets/en/025.webp) +![Jacqueline de Romilly, Ancient Greece's discovery of freedom](assets/en/025.webp) Herodotus is convinced that a people of free men is a people who obeys a law and not a master, as in the Persian empire, where only one man is free and all the others are slaves. This is true for Athens, a democracy, but it is also true for Sparta. The king does not create the law. He does not impose his will. He ensures the respect of the law, he is at its service, and he dies, if necessary, to defend it. @@ -424,14 +458,15 @@ Herodotus is convinced that a people of free men is a people who obeys a law and Moving away from mythological thought, Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and later Democritus and Empedocles were the first to seek to understand phusis (nature) through reason, rather than through supernatural entities. -![image](assets/en/026.webp) +![A picture of Karl Popper](assets/en/026.webp) -The fundamental principle posited by these early Pre-Socratic philosophers is that the elements of the kosmos (the universe) hold in place because they are all equally subject to the same "law of nature" (phusis) that can be stated universally and necessarily. The universe is rational; it constitutes a structured whole, which man can discover with his reason (the "logos" as opposed to the "mutos", the myth). +The fundamental principle posited by these early Pre-Socratic philosophers is that the elements of the kosmos (the universe) hold in place because they are **all equally subject to the same "law of nature"** (phusis) that can be stated universally and necessarily. The universe is rational; it constitutes a structured whole, which man can discover with his reason (the "logos" as opposed to the "mutos", the myth). According to Karl Popper, we owe the invention of critical rationalism, the Western tradition of critical discussion, and the source of scientific thought and pluralism to the philosophers of ancient Greece, particularly the Pre-Socratics. He explains this in a chapter of _Conjectures and Refutations_ titled "Return to the Pre-Socratics": -Regarding the first signs of the existence of a critical attitude, of a new freedom of thought, they appear in Anaximander's critique of Thales. This is quite a singular phenomenon; the thinker whom Anaximander criticises is his master, his compatriot, one of the Seven Sages, the one who founded the Ionian School. According to tradition, Anaximander was only fourteen years younger than Thales, and he likely formulated his critiques and presented his new concepts during his master's lifetime, as they died, it seems, a few years apart. However, no evidence of dissent, quarrel, or schism is found in the sources. -![image](assets/en/027.webp) +> Regarding the first signs of the existence of a critical attitude, of a new freedom of thought, they appear in Anaximander's critique of Thales. This is quite a singular phenomenon; the thinker whom Anaximander criticises is his master, his compatriot, one of the Seven Sages, the one who founded the Ionian School. According to tradition, Anaximander was only fourteen years younger than Thales, and he likely formulated his critiques and presented his new concepts during his master's lifetime, as they died, it seems, a few years apart. However, no evidence of dissent, quarrel, or schism is found in the sources. + +![Karl Popper, Conjectures and refutations](assets/en/027.webp) These elements, according to him, indicate that Thales originated this new tradition of freedom, based on an original relationship between master and disciple. Thales was able to tolerate criticism, and he established the tradition of acknowledging it. Popper identifies a break here from the dogmatic tradition, which allows only a single school doctrine, and replaces it with pluralism and fallibilism. @@ -447,6 +482,8 @@ The only means we have to approach the truth are criticism and discussion. From :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### A Cosmopolitan Empire + The Roman Empire was a vast, cosmopolitan entity. At its peak, around 117 AD, it was an immense multiethnic and multilingual state: - In the west, it extended from Great Britain (present-day England) to Spain, passing through Gaul (present-day France) and the north of Africa. @@ -454,7 +491,7 @@ The Roman Empire was a vast, cosmopolitan entity. At its peak, around 117 AD, it - To the south, it bordered the Mediterranean Sea, including Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and Cyrenaica (part of present-day Libya). - To the east, it extended to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and Armenia. -![image](assets/en/028.webp) +![Map of the Roman Empire](assets/en/028.webp) From then on, the Romans advanced the development of law far beyond the Greeks, who lived in small, ethnically homogeneous city-states. Under the Roman Republic, there was already legal protection of property and individual rights. @@ -464,7 +501,7 @@ Private property assumed a new dimension in Roman civilization that it had not p Roman law would become the foundation of all modern Western laws from the Middle Ages to the present day. -![image](assets/en/029.webp) +![The Colosseum in Rome](assets/en/029.webp) ### The protection of individual rights @@ -474,7 +511,7 @@ This law corresponds astonishingly to the fundamental natural rights as theorize Certainly, women, slaves, and foreigners were still excluded from the full protection of the law. Nevertheless, the Law of the Twelve Tables represented significant progress and laid the groundwork for the further development of individual rights, which were subsequently extended to all. -![image](assets/en/030.webp) +![Statue of justice](assets/en/030.webp) The Law of the Twelve Tables notably places particular importance on property rights: @@ -498,7 +535,7 @@ A model of balance in thought is Seneca, a Roman Stoic philosopher who wrote abo The Treatise on the Happy Life (_De Vita Beata_) is a plea for Stoic morality. Happiness, says Seneca, "is a free soul \[...\] inaccessible to fear \[...\] for whom the only evil is moral indignity." A disciple of Socrates, the Stoic sage does not fear physical evil, death, or even suffering injustice. For him, the only evil is moral evil. Therefore, the supreme good lies in virtue. -![image](assets/en/031.webp) +![Seneca, De Vita Beata](assets/en/031.webp) However, pleasure is not incompatible with virtue: @@ -509,7 +546,8 @@ That's why the wise man does not reject the gifts of fortune: > He does not love riches, he prefers them; he does not welcome them into his heart, but into his house; he does not reject what he possesses, he dominates them and wants them to provide his virtue with ample matter. Seneca goes even further. For the wise man, riches are the occasion and the means to exercise virtue: -In poverty [...] there is only one kind of virtue: not to falter or let oneself be depressed; amidst wealth, temperance, generosity, discernment, economy, and magnificence have free rein. + +> In poverty [...] there is only one kind of virtue: not to falter or let oneself be depressed; amidst wealth, temperance, generosity, discernment, economy, and magnificence have free rein. ### The Concept of a Higher Law @@ -519,11 +557,11 @@ This idea reminds us that the Prince (just like political leaders) does not poss This is what philosophers of Antiquity, especially the Romans like Cicero or the Stoics, called natural law. Its origins can be traced back to Greek thought, particularly in the works of Sophocles and Aristotle. -Aristotle distinguishes between natural justice and legal justice. Natural justice is what is universally valid, in every place and at all times. It is an unwritten law, known through reason and logic. Legal justice is inherently indifferent, but becomes mandatory for everyone as a result of a conventional choice and is codified in a legal text. In other words, a distinction is made between natural law and positive law. +Aristotle distinguishes between natural justice and legal justice. **Natural justice is what is universally valid, in every place and at all times.** It is an unwritten law, known through reason and logic. Legal justice is inherently indifferent, but becomes mandatory for everyone as a result of a conventional choice and is codified in a legal text. In other words, a distinction is made between natural law and positive law. The playwright Sophocles, in his play _Antigone_, stages a conflict between divine law and human law. Antigone refuses to obey King Creon's decree, which forbids the burial of her brother, arguing that divine laws, being immutable and superior, take precedence over human laws. -![image](assets/en/032.webp) +![A painting of Antigone](assets/en/032.webp) When Antigone disobeys Creon, she opposes positive law to obey her moral and religious conscience. If there is only positive law, says Aristotle, Creon is always right, even when he is wrong. But if we maintain the regulatory idea of a natural or divine law, Antigone can stand up when the time comes and invoke against an unjust law, the superior right of the unwritten law. @@ -531,7 +569,8 @@ When Antigone disobeys Creon, she opposes positive law to obey her moral and rel Cicero lived in the 1st century BC and is considered one of the greatest orators of the Latin language under the Roman Empire. He is also a moral and political philosopher closely aligned with the Stoics. Educated Europeans have read his essays for many centuries. -![image](assets/en/033.webp) +![Statue of Cicero](assets/en/033.webp) + In his treatise _On the Laws_ (_De Legibus_), he reflects on the foundation of law. According to him, positive law, the set of conventions or written laws adopted by a society, cannot establish justice worthy of the name. There exists a natural justice, inscribed in human reason: "law has a foundation in nature itself." To say that the unjust are the result of a convention is to say that truth is decreed. However, truth cannot be decreed, even by the majority; it guides our judgments. Cicero also rejects utility as the foundation of law. Indeed, he writes: @@ -552,13 +591,15 @@ Asserting that law cannot be reduced to merely the statutes enacted by the legis :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Decline and Collapse + Why did Rome decline and ultimately fall? Many like to think that the Roman Empire collapsed suddenly, under the impact of barbarian invasions. However, the causes of the Roman Empire's collapse are to be found much earlier, in imperialism and economic and monetary dirigisme. In 1734, in his _Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and of Their Decline_, Montesquieu developed an original and unified thesis to explain the rise and fall of Roman power: the freedom gained under the Republic and then lost under the Empire. From the moment Roman domination expanded, freedom was lost, and decadence set in. -![image](assets/en/034.webp) +![The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire](assets/en/034.webp) The Roman Empire was a parasitic military regime that could only survive through a constant influx of plundered wealth from outside, prisoners reduced to slavery, and stolen lands. @@ -575,7 +616,7 @@ Gladiator fights, chariot races, and theatrical performances, often free, attrac Under the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161), the Roman bureaucracy reached enormous proportions. However, as tax revenues were insufficient to fund the administration and garrisons, emperors began to issue more and more currency by reducing the amount of silver in each coin. The Denarius, the main currency of Rome, saw its silver content drop from 100% to 0.5% between 235 and 284 AD. With the devaluation of the currency, prices increased uncontrollably, resulting in a decline in consumption, trade, and confidence. -The fall of the Roman Empire was a slow process, directly linked to the bankruptcy of a corrupt monetary system. The ensuing hyperinflation led to the collapse of the economy, resulting in widespread loss of confidence in the currency among the people. +The fall of the Roman Empire was a slow process, **directly linked to the bankruptcy of a corrupt monetary system**. The ensuing hyperinflation led to the collapse of the economy, resulting in widespread loss of confidence in the currency among the people. Then, political instability was added to the economic instability, with more than 50 different emperors on the throne in a span of 50 years. @@ -583,19 +624,21 @@ Then, political instability was added to the economic instability, with more tha A classic example of interventionism emerged in Rome when Emperor Diocletian wanted to cap prices. Interventionism is defined as the action of a power that exceeds its role in maintaining order and protecting citizens. It is an attempt to control the market, aiming to modify prices, wages, interest rates, and profits. -![image](assets/en/035.webp) +![Roman soldiers at war](assets/en/035.webp) The repeated monetary emissions by successive emperors to cope with the increase in military expenditures had caused a surge in prices. In 301, Diocletian proclaimed the Edict of Maximum in an attempt to cap them. It was a failure. Ludwig von Mises describes this episode, which well illustrates the harmful effects of interventionism: -Roman Emperor Diocletian is well-known for having been the last Roman emperor to persecute Christians. Roman emperors, in the latter part of the third century, had only one financial method: to debase the currency. In these primitive times, before the invention of the printing press, inflation itself was, so to speak, a primitive concept. It involved fraud in the minting of coins, especially silver, until the color of the alloy was changed and the weight was significantly reduced. The result of this debasement of the currencies, coupled with the corresponding increase in circulation, was a rise in prices, followed by a price control edict. And the Roman emperors did not hold back in enforcing the laws; they did not consider death too severe a penalty for a man who had asked for too high a price. They enforced price controls, but as a consequence, they brought down society. This eventually led to the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the breakdown of the division of labor. -([Economic Policy, Reflections for Today and Tomorrow](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_3.htm)) + +> Roman Emperor Diocletian is well-known for having been the last Roman emperor to persecute Christians. Roman emperors, in the latter part of the third century, had only one financial method: to debase the currency. In these primitive times, before the invention of the printing press, inflation itself was, so to speak, a primitive concept. It involved fraud in the minting of coins, especially silver, until the color of the alloy was changed and the weight was significantly reduced. The result of this debasement of the currencies, coupled with the corresponding increase in circulation, was a rise in prices, followed by a price control edict. And the Roman emperors did not hold back in enforcing the laws; they did not consider death too severe a penalty for a man who had asked for too high a price. They enforced price controls, but as a consequence, they brought down society. This eventually led to the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the breakdown of the division of labor. +> +> ([Economic Policy, Reflections for Today and Tomorrow](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_3.htm)) ### From Liberalism to Socialism Following in the footsteps of Montesquieu, Philippe Fabry demonstrates that Rome experienced a trajectory from liberalism to socialism. Philippe Fabry is a historian of law, institutions, and political ideas. He has taught at the University of Toulouse 1 Capitole and is the author of several books, including _Rome, from Liberalism to Socialism_(2014). -![image](assets/en/036.webp) +![Roman silver denarius](assets/en/036.webp) Was Rome the greatest liberal power of the ancient world? Did it then fall into a form of socialism? Let's first define the terms: @@ -606,7 +649,7 @@ Socialism: the organization by the State of society considered as a whole, throu The thesis of Philippe Fabry's book is that "the fall of the Roman Empire is the consequence of the deadlock into which imperial socialism had led the ancient world." It was the dirigisme of the Roman imperial state that led to its collapse. The Roman Republic, the greatest liberal power of the ancient world, lasted from 510 BC to 27 BC, spanning over 500 years. However, gradually, the civic collegiality that characterized the Roman Republic gave way to personal power, embodied by emperors who adopted the style of government of the Oriental potentates of ancient Egypt and Persia. Breaking with a previously moderate foreign policy, Rome suddenly subdued vast populations through war, providing streams of slaves to wealthy Roman investors, and ruining the middle classes. In return, the Roman population demanded increasing subsidies. -In the early days of its greatness, each Roman considered himself the main source of his income. What he could voluntarily acquire in the market was the source of his livelihood. Rome's decline began when a large number of citizens discovered another source of income: the political process or the redistributive state. +In the early days of its greatness, each Roman considered himself the main source of his income. What he could voluntarily acquire in the market was the source of his livelihood. Rome's decline began when **a large number of citizens discovered another source of income: the political process** or the redistributive state. Romans then abandoned freedom and personal responsibility in exchange for promises of privileges and wealth distributed directly by the government. Citizens adopted the idea that it was more advantageous to obtain income through political means rather than through labor. @@ -628,9 +671,11 @@ And he adds: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Christian Roots of Individual Freedom + The Christian concept of freedom developed in medieval theology, from Saint Augustine in the 4th century to Saint Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. What is this idea? -![image](assets/en/037.webp) +![Philippe Fabry, Rome, from Liberalism to Socialism](assets/en/037.webp) ### Freedom is implicated in the idea of sin @@ -643,7 +688,7 @@ If God wanted man to be able to do wrong, isn't He then indirectly responsible f > The free will without which no one can live well, you must recognise that it is a good, and that it is a gift from God, and that those who misuse this good should be condemned rather than saying of the one who gave it that he should not have given it. -Saint Augustine's response to the problem is that God is responsible for the possibility of evil, but not for its actualization. He wants the possibility of evil because this possibility is necessary for freedom, without which there is no responsibility, that is, no access to the dignity of moral life. +Saint Augustine's response to the problem is that God is responsible for the possibility of evil, but not for its actualization. He wants the possibility of evil because **this possibility is necessary for freedom, without which there is no responsibility**, that is, no access to the dignity of moral life. But the realization of moral evil is the work of man, who makes bad use of his freedom, and not of God, who wants man to choose the good. @@ -652,7 +697,8 @@ In summary, freedom is a good because it allows one to order oneself to the good ### God does not do good in our place In medieval theology, providence is not understood as a constant intervention of God in the lives of men, as if God acted on our behalf and without our consent. On the contrary, God gives to each creature, according to its nature, faculties that allow it to provide for itself and thus reach its full development. God does not do good for the creature in its stead. -![image](assets/en/038.webp) + +![Romanesque architecture](assets/en/038.webp) And the higher we go in the scale of beings, from mineral to man, the more God delegates to his creature the power to act on its own. He entrusts man with the freedom to govern himself and to govern the world with his reason, according to the virtue of prudence. @@ -660,7 +706,7 @@ Thus, Saint Thomas writes (_Summa contra Gentiles_, III, 69 and 122): > To take away from the perfection of creatures is to detract from the perfection of divine power (...) God is offended by us only because we act against our good. -![image](assets/en/039.webp) +![The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel](assets/en/039.webp) Providence, therefore, gives us the means to be our own providence. And he adds: @@ -675,7 +721,8 @@ However, this inner light is not enough to act well. The development of concrete According to Saint Thomas: > Through the knowledge of natural law, man directly accesses the common order of reason, before and above the political order to which he belongs as a citizen of a particular society. -> Therefore, there exists a right before the formation of the State, a set of general principles that reason can articulate by studying the nature of man as God created it. This right imposes itself on the monarch, on power, which must then respect it. And the laws enacted by political authority are binding only insofar as they conform to natural law. + +Therefore, there exists a right before the formation of the State, a set of general principles that reason can articulate by studying the nature of man as God created it. This right imposes itself on the monarch, on power, which must then respect it. And the laws enacted by political authority are binding only insofar as they conform to natural law. ## Reason and faith: an open competition @@ -683,9 +730,11 @@ According to Saint Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### The Autonomy of Reason + In the Middle Ages, reason and faith competed for access to truth. Following Abélard and Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, in the 13th century, chose to defend the autonomy of reason in relation to faith. -![image](assets/en/040.webp) +![Saint Thomas Aquinas](assets/en/040.webp) He borrows from Aristotle's thought the idea of an autonomous natural order, independent of the celestial order. The supernatural order indeed transcends the natural order, but it exists separately and precedes it. Therefore, for him, there are two ways to access the truth about the world and particularly about God: @@ -700,7 +749,7 @@ Mysticism consists of excluding reason from faith. Faith is absolute, beyond rea In Islam, it is also said that one should not represent God or give Him an image. In the Christian world, a mystic like Meister Eckhart notably wrote in a Sermon: "All things have a why, but God has no why." For mystics, the only valid philosophy is that which comes directly from Revelation. Anything that does not come from it is neither true nor false but devoid of any truth value. The direct opposite of this thought is the one that states that only reason is right, and that all faith is nonsensical. This is absolute rationalism, which leads to atheism. However, such a current did not yet emerge in the Middle Ages. -For proponents of religious rationalism, there is a complementarity between reason and faith, representing the middle position. The truth can be known both by faith and by reason. And so, what is true in faith must also be true in reason, and vice versa. The truth is one, but it is accessible in two ways. Therefore, two sciences cannot contradict each other but complement one another: natural science or philosophy and sacred science or theology. If this is not the case, if a contradiction appears between reason and faith, it is either that one reasons poorly or that one misinterprets the Scriptures. +For proponents of religious rationalism, there is a complementarity between reason and faith, representing the middle position. **The truth can be known both by faith and by reason.** And so, what is true in faith must also be true in reason, and vice versa. The truth is one, but it is accessible in two ways. Therefore, two sciences cannot contradict each other but complement one another: natural science or philosophy and sacred science or theology. If this is not the case, if a contradiction appears between reason and faith, it is either that one reasons poorly or that one misinterprets the Scriptures. Thus, for Thomas Aquinas, "Faith is the assent of reason moved by the will in the absence of evidence." In other words, reason is capable of apprehending the world and God, rationally, up to a certain point. At this point, it encounters no more evidence. The will can then choose to believe, and thus go further towards the truth by faith, or not to believe. But faith is not a leap into the absurd. It is not a humiliation of reason. @@ -710,7 +759,8 @@ This is the middle position, which seeks to reconcile faith and reason. True rat The Christian Middle Ages were marked, at the beginning of the 13th century, by the birth and multiplicity of universities in the West. A university is a community of students and masters from the same city under the control of the Church and comprising in principle four faculties: arts, theology, law, and medicine. Theology is conceived as a science, modelled after Greek science. -![image](assets/en/041.webp) +![Master and disciples in the Middle Ages](assets/en/041.webp) + In 1200, Philippe-Auguste established the University of Paris, which quickly became the most renowned university in Europe. In 1257, Robert de Sorbon founded a college of theology at the University of Paris, which would later be called the Sorbonne. A new method of teaching and research, known as scholasticism (from the Latin schola, meaning "school"), emerged within these universities. It involved the "disputatio," a type of debate in which participants presented opposing views to an audience. A thesis was proposed, followed by objections that required a response. Once all arguments were exhausted, the master would resolve the debate with a reasoned solution. Among the great Aristotelian masters who marked this era, we can mention Albert the Great (1200-1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). The latter, by establishing reason in its rights, highlighted the specificity and autonomy of philosophical wisdom in relation to theology. Just as grace presupposes nature and fulfills it, faith presupposes and perfects reason. @@ -723,15 +773,19 @@ From then on, religious rationalism would definitively prevail over mysticism. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: -In the Middle Ages, the Church and Christian monarchies inherited a political model from the Roman Empire, known as the theologico-political system —a system in which power is considered sacred, meaning that the political leader is also a religious leader. +### The Theologico-Political System + +In the Middle Ages, the Church and Christian monarchies inherited a political model from the Roman Empire, known as the theologico-political system, a system in which power is considered sacred, meaning that the political leader is also a religious leader. This is why a politico-religious unanimity characterizes medieval societies. Political power bases its legitimacy, authority, and unity on the Christian faith (or the Muslim faith). It considers itself the guardian of cultural and religious orthodoxy and treats as pariahs those who stray from this unanimity. In this context, even if a certain tolerance could be conceded to those who detach from the common cultural vision (such as Jews), no right to pluralism could be recognized for them. It was not until the end of the Middle Ages, with the conquest of America, that the issue of civil liberties became crucial to the Church, giving rise to a new philosophy of law that affirmed and protected individual freedoms, legitimized pluralism, and condemned state coercion. ### Saint Augustine and the Theocratic Temptation The question of the relationship between politics and religion took shape with Saint Augustine's work _Civitas Dei_ (_The City of God_). In it, he explains that two spheres coexist: -Two loves have thus made two cities: the love of self to the contempt of God, the earthly city; the love of God, to the contempt of self, the heavenly city. -![image](assets/en/042.webp) + +> Two loves have thus made two cities: the love of self to the contempt of God, the earthly city; the love of God, to the contempt of self, the heavenly city. + +![The oldest university in the Western world, the University of Bologna](assets/en/042.webp) We have, therefore: @@ -740,7 +794,7 @@ We have, therefore: However, for Augustine, this earthly city is necessary. It is essential because it guarantees peace. Thus, coexistence with the religious must be well managed, and a predominance of spiritual power over temporal power should regulate it. However, there should not be a radical separation or open conflict; instead, both entities should work together. Historians have referred to this doctrine as political Augustinianism. -![image](assets/en/043.webp) +![Saint Augustine, The City of God](assets/en/043.webp) ### The rivalry between temporal power and spiritual power @@ -762,22 +816,24 @@ The Church's theocratic temptation also clashes with the theory of "divine right :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Man Created in the Image of God + Ancient thought subordinated man to a divine cosmos, that is, to a perfect universe of which he was merely a part. Monotheism, on the other hand, asserts the infinitely superior value of man over nature, insofar as man is created in the image of God. This crucial point is at the origin of a true ethical revolution. The Bible affirms the sacred and infinite value of each human being. This is why biblical ethics change our relationship to evil. It brings a sharp and unprecedented sensitivity to human suffering. It therefore encourages us to consider as abnormal and unbearable evils that humanity had previously found perfectly bearable, especially the evil done to others, the weak, and the innocent. ### The Transition from a Symmetrical Ethics to an Asymmetrical Ethics -Symmetrical ethics is about establishing strict equality in human relationships or strict reciprocity. It appears in the virtue of justice, the supreme virtue for the Greeks. Justice is giving to others what is owed to them: to each their own—perceiving time as cyclical leads to a sense of not being responsible for the evil done by others. There is evil on Earth, but it has always existed and will always exist. This must be chalked up to the profit and loss account, and the sum of it is constant. There is nothing to be done, it will always be so, this is Greek and Roman fatalism. +Symmetrical ethics is about establishing strict equality in human relationships or strict reciprocity. It appears in the virtue of justice, the supreme virtue for the Greeks. Justice is giving to others what is owed to them: to each their own. Perceiving time as cyclical leads to a sense of not being responsible for the evil done by others. There is evil on Earth, but it has always existed and will always exist. This must be chalked up to the profit and loss account, and the sum of it is constant. There is nothing to be done, it will always be so, this is Greek and Roman fatalism. -Biblical ethics are asymmetrical, meaning that one must give more than what is owed. Everyone feels responsible for evil, even for that which they have not committed—ethics of giving, ethics of forgiveness, ethics of compassion. One cannot remain indifferent to the suffering of others and must not tolerate gratuitous suffering, even when it does not come from us. The tranquillity of the Stoic sage who accepts fate becomes impossible. This is the meaning of the parable of the Good Samaritan. Nothing obliges him to stop and take care of a man wounded by bandits. From the ethical revolution brought by the Bible, all of humanity becomes a sort of Good Samaritan. It is invited not to tolerate the evil done to others and to fight against it. +**Biblical ethics are asymmetrical, meaning that one must give more than what is owed.** Everyone feels responsible for evil, even for that which they have not committed: ethics of giving, ethics of forgiveness, ethics of compassion. One cannot remain indifferent to the suffering of others and must not tolerate gratuitous suffering, even when it does not come from us. The tranquillity of the Stoic sage who accepts fate becomes impossible. This is the meaning of the parable of the Good Samaritan. Nothing obliges him to stop and take care of a man wounded by bandits. From the ethical revolution brought by the Bible, all of humanity becomes a sort of Good Samaritan. It is invited not to tolerate the evil done to others and to fight against it. Moreover, since God is the creator, we see the emergence of a new concept: the equality of all before God. There are no privileged individuals in the face of the transcendent immensity of God, and all men are equal. ### The Rights of the Indians The most well-known incarnation of this emerging doctrine is the School of Salamanca, located in Spain during the 16th century. Francisco de Vitoria, one of its representatives, asserts that if every man is created in the image of God, no man can be declared inferior to another, not the Jew, nor the black slave, nor the Indian. -![image](assets/en/044.webp) +![Joseph Blanc, The Baptism of Clovis](assets/en/044.webp) The discovery of the Americas constituted a real cultural shock, a first breach in the politico-religious unanimism inherited from Antiquity. The famous controversy over the rights of the Indians indeed divided theologians into two opposed and irreconcilable camps. @@ -787,9 +843,10 @@ In the opposing camp, there were the proponents of pluralism and civil liberties In the _Summa Theologica_, St. Thomas poses the following question: Should one obey an unfaithful Prince who does not believe in God? And he answers yes, because legitimate authority is by natural right, and the Prince's infidelity or atheism is not a reason for rebellion. The political order is primarily a natural order. He further asks: Should war be waged on the infidels and the faith imposed on them? He answers no: a war is just only if it is defensive. Finally, faith can only be a free act. The scholars of Salamanca applied this reasoning to the case of the Indigenous peoples, arguing that property is a natural right. Therefore, taking lands from the Indigenous peoples is to commit theft, just as if they were Christians. It is also not permissible to wage war on them, given that there is no aggression on their part, but rather from ours. -![image](assets/en/045.webp) -The matter of the Indigenous peoples was the first crack in the politico-religious monolith. It showed that the unity of the political society could rest on a basis other than the religious unity of the inhabitants of the same territory, based on a common bond rooted in human nature. +![Marianne Mahn-Lot, Bartolomé de la Casas](assets/en/045.webp) + +The matter of the Indigenous peoples was the first crack in the politico-religious monolith. It showed that **the unity of political society could rest on a basis other than religious unity**, based on a common bond rooted in human nature. The idea of humanity progresses. It effectively came to be considered that there is only one humanity to which equal rights are naturally linked. But it will still take time for it to be accepted by all. This will notably require the contribution of the natural sciences to the concept of the human species. @@ -799,6 +856,8 @@ The idea of humanity progresses. It effectively came to be considered that there :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Christianity and the Free Economy + We have seen that Christianity imposes a moral duty on people to work towards improving the world. God wants man to be happy, but does not want to achieve his good in his place. It is therefore up to the Christian to fight moral evil, to love their neighbor, to help the victims, in short, to work for a more just and humane world. Is capitalism, that is, the free economy based on private property and the freedom of contracts, compatible with the Christian duty? Part of the answer lies in the fact that capitalism originated in a religious context, well before the Protestant Reformation. The other part of the answer involves observing that capitalism is the most effective means of improving the material and moral condition of individuals. Only a free economy, based on property rights and voluntary cooperation, is capable of sustainably lifting people out of misery. @@ -811,9 +870,9 @@ Henri Pirenne, a Belgian historian of the early 20th century, devoted part of hi -> All the essential features of capitalism — individual enterprise, the progress of credit, commercial profits, speculation, etc. — already existed from the 12th century in the Italian city-states, Venice, Genoa, or Florence. +> All the essential features of capitalism (individual enterprise, the progress of credit, commercial profits, speculation, etc.) already existed from the 12th century in the Italian city-states, Venice, Genoa, or Florence. -![image](assets/en/046.webp) +![University of Salamanca, Spain](assets/en/046.webp) According to Pirenne, these trading cities, thanks to their commercial dynamism and strategic position on maritime routes, had developed economic practices characteristic of nascent capitalism. He notably highlights: @@ -828,13 +887,13 @@ Pirenne observes that these practices, although present in other regions of Euro The Scriptures condemn interest-bearing loans, known as usury, considering that lending money at interest amounts to exploiting vulnerable borrowers. However, in practice, the Church turned a blind eye to the issue. -![image](assets/en/047.webp) +![Henri Pirenne, Medieval Cities & History of Europe](assets/en/047.webp) Jacques Le Goff is a French historian specializing in the culture and mentalities of the Middle Ages. Following Pirenne, he recognizes the presence of capitalism's seeds as early as the Middle Ages, notably in Italian cities, where practices such as individual enterprise, the pursuit of profit, and the use of credit instruments were already present. Or Le Goff highlights in _L'usure au Moyen Âge_ (1967, republished in 1986 under the title: _La bourse et la vie; économie et religion au moyen-age_) that as early as the 13th century, Saint Albert the Great had theorized the notion of "legitimate interest" which was further developed by Saint Thomas Aquinas after him. Despite religious prohibitions, the practice of lending existed and met real economic needs. Long before Adam Smith, they understood that interest on loans was not usury but a means to compensate the lender for risk and the borrower for investment, which are at the foundation of capitalism. -![image](assets/en/048.webp) +![Jacques le Goff - The Money or your Life - Economy and Religion in the Middle Ages](assets/en/048.webp) However, according to the French historian, the rise of capitalism must be placed in a broader context of economic, social, and cultural transformations that unfolded over several centuries. Le Goff notably emphasizes the importance of the Commercial Revolution of the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by the expansion of maritime trade and the discovery of new trade routes, which stimulated the accumulation of capital and the predominance of market logic. @@ -842,12 +901,12 @@ However, according to the French historian, the rise of capitalism must be place The systematic study of economic laws began in the High Middle Ages. The first economists are the scholastic theologians of the School of Paris. The first among them to write a scientific treatise entirely devoted to an economic subject is Nicolas Oresme (1325-1382). Around 1360, he composed his _Treatise on the Origin, Nature, Law, and Alterations of Money_, which summarizes and develops the ideas of the scholastics of his time. -![image](assets/en/049.webp) +![Photo of Jacques Le Goff](assets/en/049.webp) At the heart of his monetary analysis lies the problem of "mutations" of money, that is, alterations in the metallic content of coins and their denomination. These alterations have occurred since the dawn of time and are well documented for Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Their most visible effect is to change the purchasing power of the monetary unit, especially to decrease it. This is a primitive form of [inflation](https://planb.academy/resources/glossary/inflation) that Oresme clearly condemns as an evil. Oresme immediately raises a central question: Is inflation beneficial for the community? He answers in the negative, arguing that inflation does not make money any more or less useful for exchanges. The economy can function well regardless of the price level, and thus, irrespective of the nominal money supply. -But if that is the case, another question obviously arises: why do alterations of currency exist? And in particular, why seek to increase the money supply? Oresme responds that these alterations do not have the same consequences for different members of the community. They benefit certain people at the expense of others. The winners of currency alterations have a material interest in implementing them. Generally, these winners are the men in power. Oresme writes: +But if that is the case, another question obviously arises: why do alterations of currency exist? And in particular, why seek to increase the money supply? Oresme responds that **these alterations do not have the same consequences for different members of the community**. They benefit certain people at the expense of others. The winners of currency alterations have a material interest in implementing them. Generally, these winners are the men in power. Oresme writes: > The primary and ultimate reason why the prince wants to seize the power to change currencies is the gain or profit he can derive from it, for otherwise, it is without reason that he would make so many and such considerable mutations. @@ -855,7 +914,7 @@ Then he adds these details: > Whatever gain the prince derives from it, it is necessarily at the expense of the community. Now, whatever a prince does at the cost of the community is an injustice and the act, not of a king, but of a tyrant, as Aristotle says (...) If the prince can rightfully make a simple change in the currency and derive some gain from it, he can, for a similar reason, make a greater change and derive more gain (...) Thus, the prince could eventually attract to himself almost all the money or wealth of his subjects and reduce them to servitude, which would be to fully prove tyranny and even a true and perfect tyranny, as it emerges from the philosophers and the stories of the ancients. -Oresme emphasizes that currency alterations are not simply a game of redistribution in favor of power at the expense of the rest of the community. They lead to overall losses — the game is a negative-sum game. A currency that is frequently altered disrupts trade and invites counterfeiters to take advantage of the general confusion. +Oresme emphasizes that currency alterations are not simply a game of redistribution in favor of power at the expense of the rest of the community. They lead to overall losses: the game is a negative-sum game. A currency that is frequently altered disrupts trade and invites counterfeiters to take advantage of the general confusion. Moreover, if two different currencies benefit from legal tender, agents will hoard the one that is worth more, so that only the inferior currency remains in circulation. (Oresme here anticipates the famous "Gresham's law": bad money drives out good in a legal tender regime.) He concludes that currency manipulations are worse than usury and that, probably, they were a significant cause of the decline of the Roman Empire, as we have seen previously. @@ -869,8 +928,11 @@ Moreover, if two different currencies benefit from legal tender, agents will hoa :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Wars of Religion and the Enlightenment + From the Renaissance, Europe was to be ravaged by wars of religion. Tolerance, therefore, became one of the great battles of the Enlightenment. -![image](assets/en/050.webp) + +![Nicolas Oresme, Treatise on coinage](assets/en/050.webp) For some, the scientific method would unify people beyond prejudices with a common view of the world. Isn't universal attraction the same for a Catholic, a Protestant, a Jew, or an atheist? Thus, the Encyclopédie by Diderot and d’Alembert represents an attempt to promote universal knowledge, capable of uniting people. @@ -882,7 +944,7 @@ For Voltaire, it is primarily man's fallibility that constitutes the foundation > Tolerance is the necessary consequence of our awareness of being fallible. To err is human, and we all make mistakes constantly. Let us forgive each other our follies; this is the first law of nature. -![image](assets/en/051.webp) +![Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man](assets/en/051.webp) But in his _Philosophical Letters_ (1734), Voltaire offers another viewpoint. He observes that in England, commerce fosters religious tolerance, which is an essential component of civil peace and thus happiness. He writes these letters to criticize the religious wars in France, fueled by an absolute and intrusive political power. This represents the first radical critique of the Ancien Régime. @@ -894,7 +956,7 @@ Three points are to be considered according to Voltaire: 2. Luxury and commerce are guarantees of freedoms. 3. Finally, commerce is beneficial because it fosters civilized and thus peaceful relations among people. -The more commerce is valued, the more prejudices fade in the face of economic interests. Despite their confessional differences, men who trade all have the same object at the center of their concerns: profit. The common pursuit of profit leads to cooperation and respect for the opinions of others, especially their religious beliefs. +The more commerce is valued, **the more prejudices fade in the face of economic interests**. Despite their confessional differences, men who trade all have the same object at the center of their concerns: profit. The common pursuit of profit leads to cooperation and respect for the opinions of others, especially their religious beliefs. In the _Sixth Letter_, _"On the Presbyterians"_, Voltaire provides the example of the London Stock Exchange. In this pinnacle of international commerce, "the Jew, the Muslim, and the Christian" do business together, "as if they were of the same Religion". They reserve "the name of infidels only for those who go bankrupt". The passage is worth quoting in its entirety because it is so famous: @@ -907,9 +969,10 @@ In the _Tenth Letter_, "On Commerce", Voltaire describes the French mindset as f ### Truth Requires Freedom -Yet France was not lacking in great minds. It is little known but Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, was first and foremost a leading thinker before becoming the Controller General of Finances under Louis XVI. He was the author of a masterful treatise on political economy, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), which predates Adam Smith's _The Wealth of Nations_ (1776). +Yet France was not lacking in great minds. It is little known but Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, was first and foremost a leading thinker before becoming the Controller General of Finances under Louis XVI. He was the author of a masterful treatise on political economy, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), which predates Adam Smith's _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776). + +![Voltaire, Philosophical Letters](assets/en/052.webp) -![image](assets/en/052.webp) His early writings reflect his commitment to the Enlightenment philosophy. In 1754, he published his _Letters on Civil Tolerance_ and in 1757, several articles written for _The Encyclopédie_ by Diderot and d'Alembert. In his letters, Turgot presents a definition of tolerance. To tolerate means to refuse to use violence against error. In other words, tolerance is not the acceptance of error. One can fight against it, but with the weapons of conviction and reason, not with violence. @@ -927,9 +990,11 @@ In other words, being tolerant does not mean being hostile to religion. It means :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### The Origins of Economic Liberalism + Economic liberalism is often associated with an Anglo-Saxon tradition, stemming from Adam Smith. It is contrasted with "political liberalism," which is said to originate from the Continental Enlightenment, particularly in France. This view is incorrect. -![image](assets/en/053.webp) +![Robert Turgot and Adam Smith](assets/en/053.webp) It was in response to mercantilism and, more broadly, to the ideas of the Ancien Régime that economic science emerged in France. With the Enlightenment came a period in which philosophers began to call themselves "economists." These were the physiocrats. @@ -948,11 +1013,11 @@ On the other hand, some believe that governance can be achieved through interest This phrase appeared when Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the principal advisor to Louis XIV, asked merchants one day: "What can I do for you?" One of them, named François Legendre, replied, "Let us do it!" -![image](assets/en/054.webp) +![François Quesnay](assets/en/054.webp) The phrase was adopted by the Physiocrats, François Quesnay, the Marquis d'Argenson, and then by Vincent de Gournay: "Laissez-faire, laissez passer." It became their motto. -Referring to natural law (the term originates from _phusis_, meaning nature, and _cratos_, meaning power or rule), the physiocrats believed that there are economic laws that do not depend on political or religious power, but rather on the very nature of humans and society. The economic order is the natural order of societies. Political power must submit to it. +Referring to natural law (the term originates from _phusis_, meaning nature, and _cratos_, meaning power or rule), the physiocrats believed that **there are economic laws that do not depend on political or religious power**, but rather on the very nature of humans and society. The economic order is the natural order of societies. Political power must submit to it. The Physiocrats sought to demonstrate that mercantilism, the prevailing economic policy in France as well as in England, was not only inefficient but also immoral. Colbert was one of the first modern statists. He was convinced that governmental regulation could generate national prosperity. The State acted as banker, merchant, and provider. It controlled the currency, directed trade, and redistributed wealth. According to Colbert, the goal was to increase wealth by encouraging industry. He also added, "France can only enrich itself at the expense of England and Holland." @@ -964,13 +1029,13 @@ Until the French Revolution, society was characterized by an aristocratic econom However, since the Middle Ages, as we have seen, the market economy has developed. Merchants became wealthier and gained increasing economic freedom. -![image](assets/en/055.webp) +![Jean-Baptiste Colbert](assets/en/055.webp) The market is about voluntary exchange at a negotiated price. The market enhances the material, intellectual, and political conditions of everyone by enabling the acquisition of spaces of autonomy and initiative. Indeed, humans naturally want to improve their own condition and that of their loved ones through the exchange of goods and services. Hence the desire of these new philosophers, the "economists," to enable the people to procure for themselves a sufficient income and thus to achieve what Kant calls in his pamphlet _What is Enlightenment?_ their "majority," their autonomy of decision and action. -![image](assets/en/056.webp) +![Physiocracy , collection of texts by Dupont de Nemours](assets/en/056.webp) For the Physiocrats, freedom does not divide. Fighting political privileges and combating economic rents are one and the same. The great novelty of modern economists at the dawn of the 18th century was that they focused on each individual to restore their capacity for action while considering how to contain passions and interests through the free market. @@ -992,7 +1057,9 @@ In short, if everyone can freely pursue their private interest in respect of nat :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: -1776 is a year that often goes unnoticed in history textbooks. However, in three countries — France, Scotland, and North America — several events will leave an indelible mark on the history of freedom. +### Three Events That Changed History + +1776 is a year that often goes unnoticed in history textbooks. However, in three countries (France, Scotland, and North America) several events will leave an indelible mark on the history of freedom. ### The Disgrace of Turgot @@ -1000,7 +1067,7 @@ During his brief tenure as Minister of Finance (Controller General), from August > You must, Sire, arm yourself against your kindness, with your kindness itself, considering whence comes the money that you can distribute to your courtiers. -![image](assets/en/057.webp) +![Emmanuel Kant, What is Enlightenment?](assets/en/057.webp) In 1774, he published his Six Edicts to abolish the guilds and masteries (corporations that had become monopolies and barriers to entry in the labor market), abolish internal customs duties on the grain trade, abolish forced labor (corvée), and establish tolerance towards Protestants. @@ -1012,7 +1079,7 @@ However, he mainly encountered the wrath of the nobles, who attempted to defend Turgot's major work, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), owes much to the doctrine of the Physiocrats. Turgot revisits and extends the free-market model proposed by Quesnay and, before him, by Boisguilbert against the mercantilists. But his ideas are at least equally influenced by his friend Jacques Vincent de Gournay, appointed intendant of commerce in 1751. Turgot traveled with him throughout the country during his inspection tours. -Turgot is an apostle of natural law, which he also refers to as the "system of liberty." He often emphasizes that competition in a free market naturally regulates prices and prevents abuses. Moreover, he makes the merchant the cornerstone of the market mechanism. Indeed, state agents are less motivated and, in particular, less well-informed than merchants. Therefore, it is more efficient to leave commerce in the hands of private interests. +Turgot is an apostle of natural law, which he also refers to as the "system of liberty." He often emphasizes that competition in a free market naturally regulates prices and prevents abuses. Moreover, he makes **the merchant the cornerstone of the market mechanism**. Indeed, state agents are less motivated and, in particular, less well-informed than merchants. Therefore, it is more efficient to leave commerce in the hands of private interests. It is unnecessary to prove that each individual is the sole judge of the most advantageous use of their mind and arms. They alone possess the local knowledge without which the most enlightened man can only reason blindly. They alone have an experience that is all the more reliable, as it is limited to a single object. They learn through their repeated trials, their successes, and their losses, and acquire a tact whose finesse, sharpened by the feeling of need, far surpasses all the theory of the indifferent speculator. (_Praise of Vincent de Gournay_). Here, Turgot largely anticipates the argument of Mises and Hayek on the impossibility of any economic calculation in a socialist economic system. @@ -1023,20 +1090,20 @@ Dedicating a chapter to "The Brilliance of Turgot," Murray Rothbard, in his econ In 1776, the philosopher Étienne Bonnot de Condillac published _Commerce and Government_, arguably one of the most magnificent pleas of that era in favor of free trade and individual liberty. -![image](assets/en/058.webp) +![Robert Turgot](assets/en/058.webp) _Commerce and Government_ contains what would later be called a theory of the subjectivity of value, which earned him all the praises of the Austrian economists, starting with Menger. Following Turgot, but with greater clarity, Condillac asserts that value resides not in labor but in the fact that everyone finds an interest in the exchange: > The value of things, he writes, is based on their utility, or, which amounts to the same thing, on the need we have for them; or, which again amounts to the same thing, on the use we can make of them. And he adds: "A thing does not have value because it costs, as is supposed; but it costs, because it has a value. -Thus, value does not reside inside the thing in the form of a quantity of labor that would have had to be produced (the labor value thesis that would be that of Adam Smith and Ricardo) but outside the thing, in other words, in the intensity of the desire that the buyer experiences. +Thus, value does not reside inside the thing in the form of a quantity of labor that would have had to be produced (the labor value thesis that would be that of Adam Smith and Ricardo) but outside the thing, in other words, **in the intensity of the desire that the buyer experiences**. It is also a treatise on philosophy in that it demonstrates how free and voluntary exchange is a tool of emancipation more just than state intervention because it is egalitarian and anti-hierarchical. It is capable of establishing mature and responsible citizens and is the answer to the tyrannical drifts of the Ancien Régime. Indeed, if the market can regulate the excesses of individualism, nothing can regulate the abuses of central power. This is why Condillac invites the power to free commerce from any hindrance and to renounce any intervention in the economic sphere. ### A Manifesto for Freedom in America -In 1776, an Englishman named Thomas Paine published a virulent pamphlet in America, criticizing the English monarchy and advocating for the independence of the American colonists, titled _Common Sense_. +In 1776, an Englishman named Thomas Paine published a virulent pamphlet in America, criticizing the English monarchy and advocating for the independence of the American colonists, titled _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. -![image](assets/en/059.webp) +![Condillac, Commerce and Government](assets/en/059.webp) Paine argues that: @@ -1058,13 +1125,15 @@ Thomas Paine, through his pamphlet, played a crucial role in the American Revolu On July 4, 1776, in Philadelphia, where they are gathered in Congress (in English, "Convention"), the representatives of the Thirteen English Colonies of North America adopt a resolution stating that the "United States are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." The resolution is supported by John Adams, one of the inspirers of the Tea Party, and Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Massachusetts. Thomas Jefferson, a delegate from Virginia, will draft the Declaration of Independence. -![image](assets/en/060.webp) +![Thomas Paine, Common Sense](assets/en/060.webp) + Over the years that followed, the Frenchmen La Fayette, Rochambeau, Admiral de Grasse, Count d'Estaing, General Duportail, Marquis de la Rouerie, Commander Pierre L'Enfant, writer Beaumarchais, and many others fought alongside the Insurgents to free them from the yoke of the King of England. -![image](assets/en/061.webp) + +![American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776](assets/en/061.webp) 141 years later, on July 4, 1917, amid World War I, a ceremony was held at the Picpus Cemetery in Paris for the first soldiers of the AEF who had arrived in the city. The ceremony took place near the tomb of La Fayette, the "hero of two worlds." On this occasion, Captain Charles E. Stanton from General Pershing's staff delivered a famous speech: -> I regret that I cannot address the French population in the beautiful language of its loyal country. It cannot be forgotten that your nation was our friend when America fought for its existence, when a handful of brave and patriotic men were determined to defend the rights their Creator had given them -- that France, in the person of Lafayette, came to our aid in words and deeds. It would be ungrateful not to remember this, and America will not fail in its obligations... +> I regret that I cannot address the French population in the beautiful language of its loyal country. It cannot be forgotten that your nation was our friend when America fought for its existence, when a handful of brave and patriotic men were determined to defend the rights their Creator had given them, that France, in the person of Lafayette, came to our aid in words and deeds. It would be ungrateful not to remember this, and America will not fail in its obligations... > > Therefore, it is with great pride that we embrace the colors in tribute of respect towards this citizen of your great Republic, and here and now in the shadow of the illustrious dead, we assure him of our heart and our honor to give this war a favorable outcome. > @@ -1076,12 +1145,15 @@ In 1789, it was again La Fayette, with Jefferson, who laid the first foundations Adam Smith published in 1776 _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations_. A prolific work that often categorizes him as an economist even though he taught moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow. In a caricatured way, he is remembered as the father of modern economics. -![image](assets/en/062.webp) +![Marquis de Lafayette](assets/en/062.webp) In reality, Smith owed much to the economists Quesnay and Turgot, whom he met during a nearly year-long journey in France. In this book, he notably describes a "simple system of natural liberty" in which individuals, pursuing their interests, are led "by an invisible hand" to promote the overall well-being of society. Here is the most famous passage: -By favoring the success of the national industry over that of foreign industries, he only thinks of giving himself greater security; and by directing this industry so that its product is of the highest possible value, he only thinks of his gain; in this, as in many other cases, he is led by an invisible hand to achieve an end that is not at all part of his intentions. It is not always the worst thing for society that this end is not part of his intentions. (_The Wealth of Nations_) + +> By favoring the success of the national industry over that of foreign industries, he only thinks of giving himself greater security; and by directing this industry so that its product is of the highest possible value, he only thinks of his gain; in this, as in many other cases, he is led by an invisible hand to achieve an end that is not at all part of his intentions. It is not always the worst thing for society that this end is not part of his intentions. +> +> (_The Wealth of Nations_) This famous invisible hand illustrates the idea that free competition in a free market leads to an efficient allocation of resources and a maximization of general well-being. @@ -1095,6 +1167,8 @@ The concept of spontaneous order became a key idea in the work of Friedrich Haye :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Secularization and Modern Society + The great novelty of this modern period in Western history is the emergence of a society that organizes itself outside of religious dependency. This does not mean the disappearance of religious belief or the death of God. But God becomes a private matter, no longer mixed with political affairs. There is no disappearance of religion but a dethroning of its guiding role. It becomes a system of individual beliefs. The secularization of the Western world did not occur overnight. It was prepared with ideas. As is often the case, philosophy is at the forefront of major cultural changes. @@ -1108,7 +1182,8 @@ Until the 18th century, the primary political concern for these philosophers was ### Popular Sovereignty The idea was inspired by Locke in the 17th century and then taken up by Rousseau. Sovereign power must not only come from the free will of the people but also reside in it. This is the Rousseauist theory of the sovereignty of the general will, which we refer to as democracy today. -![image](assets/en/063.webp) + +![Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations II](assets/en/063.webp) Rousseau conceives of the people as autonomous individuals capable of subjecting themselves to the laws they establish. The free will of the people constitutes the only just foundation of sovereignty. Rousseau would develop this legal humanism, characteristic of Modernity, to its ultimate consequences by conceiving of the people as an individual capable of freely self-determining or as a collective entity, such as a general will. Thus, the contract involves submission to laws that man, as the general will, gives to himself as a particular will. The theory of the general will or the sovereignty of the people thus allows for the reconciliation of freedom and submission. The self-institution of the law or political autonomy has indeed been an essential component of democracy since Rousseau. @@ -1118,18 +1193,19 @@ But the question of the origin of sovereignty is not the only one. Reflection ca One of the Enlightenment philosophers whose influence was very strong in France and America is John Locke. He was the inspiration behind the Founding Fathers of the United States, but also of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 -![image](assets/en/064.webp) +![Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract](assets/en/064.webp) -All previous systems had considered that freedoms are only privileges granted by power, granted under an authorization that can be revoked at any time. For Locke, a man's life is his own under a natural right (meaning: under a moral principle inherent in human nature) and that the only moral purpose of a government is the protection of individual rights. +All previous systems had considered that freedoms are only privileges granted by power, granted under an authorization that can be revoked at any time. For Locke, a man's life is his own under a natural right (meaning: under a moral principle inherent in human nature) and that **the only moral purpose of a government is the protection of individual rights**. Locke assigns to the state the mission of defending individual property, meaning "life, liberty, and estate": > The great and chief end, therefore, which men unite into commonwealths, and put themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. (Two Treatises of Government, § 87). Thomas Jefferson inscribed Locke's theory of inalienable rights in the Declaration of Independence: -We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among these, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. -![image](assets/en/065.webp) +> We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, among these, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. + +![John Locke, Treatise on Civil Government](assets/en/065.webp) Furthermore, Article 2 of the French Declaration of the Rights of 1789 also draws inspiration from this Lockean tradition of natural law: @@ -1141,14 +1217,15 @@ The American Revolution was led by men who spoke of fundamental inalienable righ In the 19th century, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French political philosopher, attempted to pinpoint these differences between the two sister revolutions. He attributes the success of the American Revolution to several factors. -![image](assets/en/066.webp) +![A portrait of Thomas Jefferson](assets/en/066.webp) Firstly, in defining the republic. The French Republic is one and indivisible. The American Republic is composed of sovereign states, each possessing its jurisdiction and local interests. Federalism is considered treason in France. In America, treason would consist of wanting to impose unity. Until the American Civil War, at least, the Union, with its diversity of States, was the strength of the Federation. He also argues that America's faith in a higher law played a decisive role. The Declaration of Independence proclaims all men are created equal, that they are endowed with certain inalienable rights (life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness) and that the purpose of a government is solely to secure these rights. It was about restoring principles and ideals that were trampled underfoot by the British crown. The First Amendment of the American Constitution, drafted in 1789, states: -Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. + +> Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. This formulation explicitly protects against the tyranny of the majority. However, the French Revolution was quite different. The French sought to break completely with the past. The age-old principles of the Christian heritage no longer met the expectations of revolutionaries like Robespierre. @@ -1156,7 +1233,7 @@ This formulation explicitly protects against the tyranny of the majority. Howeve Abbé Sieyès (1748-1836) is often regarded as the father of the French Revolution. He is the author of _What is the Third Estate?_, published in January 1789 -![image](assets/en/067.webp) +![A portrait of Alexis de Tocqueville](assets/en/067.webp) The Third Estate comprised all those who did not belong to the clergy or the nobility. From the very first lines of his famous pamphlet, Abbé Sieyès praised individual liberties and free competition: @@ -1168,17 +1245,18 @@ By the end of 1791, famine had exacerbated popular unrest in France. Riots paral The confiscation of Church properties aimed to avert the financial crisis; it was intended to serve as collateral for the Assignats, meaning a massive issuance of paper money. Furthermore, as Dupont de Nemours had predicted, the issuance of counterfeit currency only worsened the crisis, causing widespread inflation and a sharp decline in the value of the Assignats. In August 1792, the hunger riots led to the insurrection of Paris, the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793, and ultimately, the Reign of Terror. -![image](assets/en/068.webp) + +![Sieyès, What is the Third Estate?](assets/en/068.webp) In 1795, five years after the first issuance, the paper money had lost 99% of its value. The French Revolution continued under the Directory until 1799, when Napoleon seized power through a coup d'état. He became the First Consul of the French Republic before being crowned Emperor in 1804. This was one of the first glaring contradictions with the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which proclaimed that private property was inviolable. -![image](assets/en/069.webp) +![Execution of Marie Antoinette on October 16th, 1793](assets/en/069.webp) In America, there was no economic dirigisme, nor a monetary bankruptcy like that of the Assignats. And above all, there were no proscriptions, no mass emigrations, no guillotine, no massacres, and no Reign of Terror. Immediately, one can see the difference in the means of action that separates the American Revolution from the French Revolution. -With Rousseau and Robespierre, the French sought to believe that the Nation or the general will had unlimited power and justified all actions. From the fact that the people governed, it was concluded that they had all rights. There was clearly a contradiction between the great principles of the Revolution and the means employed to make them triumph. +With Rousseau and Robespierre, the French sought to believe that **the Nation or the general will had unlimited power** and justified all actions. From the fact that the people governed, it was concluded that they had all rights. There was clearly a contradiction between the great principles of the Revolution and the means employed to make them triumph. -This is, moreover, the meaning of the remark by Friedrich Hayek in his book _The Constitution of Liberty_: +This is, moreover, the meaning of the remark by Friedrich Hayek in his book _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > The decisive factor that rendered vain the efforts of the Revolution in favor of the promotion of individual liberty was that it created the illusion that, insofar as all power had been handed over to the people, all precautions against the abuse of this power had become unnecessary. @@ -1192,29 +1270,31 @@ This is, moreover, the meaning of the remark by Friedrich Hayek in his book _The :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Ancient versus Modern Freedom + According to Benjamin Constant, liberty in modern societies can no longer be understood in the manner of ancient cultures, as direct participation in the city's affairs. -![image](assets/en/070.webp) +![Assignment of fifteen sols](assets/en/070.webp) ### Liberty in Private Life In ancient times, individuals were sovereign in public affairs but enslaved in all their private relations. The use of political rights compensated for the sacrifice of individual freedom: the right to directly exercise various aspects of sovereignty, to deliberate in the public square, to vote on laws, to pronounce judgments, and to evaluate and judge magistrates. It is a political and collective freedom: -> The freedom of the Ancients consisted of active and constant participation in collective power. Our freedom, on the other hand, must consist of the peaceful enjoyment of private independence; it follows that we must be much more attached than the ancients to our independence. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> The freedom of the Ancients consisted of active and constant participation in collective power. Our freedom, on the other hand, must consist of the peaceful enjoyment of private independence; it follows that we must be much more attached than the ancients to our independence. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) -![image](assets/en/071.webp) +![A portrait of Benjamin Constant](assets/en/071.webp) Modern freedom encompasses civil liberties, which include economic freedom and are grounded in the right to privacy. It is the right not to be subjected to any arbitrariness, the right to expression, assembly, movement, worship, and industry. There is no freedom without the possibility of choosing one's lifestyle and values; thus, there is no freedom without the possibility of withdrawing from the community, and consequently, no liberty without a limitation of the State to allow the existence of this private space. It is a freedom that corresponds to what Americans refer to as civil rights. This definition of freedom is found in John Stuart Mill: -> The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our good in our way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs or impede their efforts to obtain it. (...) Humanity gains more by letting each person live as they see fit than by compelling them to live as others deem good. (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> The only freedom which deserves the name is that of pursuing our good in our way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs or impede their efforts to obtain it. (...) Humanity gains more by letting each person live as they see fit than by compelling them to live as others deem good. (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) -![image](assets/en/072.webp) +![Benjamin Constant, The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns](assets/en/072.webp) -Mill outlines the limits of state sovereignty: it stops where the sovereignty of the individual begins. If an individual action has no harmful consequences for others, then the individual is completely free to perform it. The State must regulate interindividual relations, but it cannot go further by interfering in the private lives of individuals. If the individual harms themselves, the State can do nothing but "remonstrate" or try to "reason" or "persuade" them: it cannot coerce or punish. For Mill adds: "The only legitimate reason for which a state may use force against one of its members, against their will, is to prevent harm from being done to others." +Mill outlines the limits of state sovereignty: it stops where the sovereignty of the individual begins. If an individual action has no harmful consequences for others, then **the individual is completely free to perform it.** The State must regulate interindividual relations, but it cannot go further by interfering in the private lives of individuals. If the individual harms themselves, the State can do nothing but "remonstrate" or try to "reason" or "persuade" them: it cannot coerce or punish. For Mill adds: "The only legitimate reason for which a state may use force against one of its members, against their will, is to prevent harm from being done to others." -![image](assets/en/073.webp) +![A portrait of John Stuart Mill](assets/en/073.webp) The political power corresponding to the freedom of the Moderns is therefore limited: "Let the authority limit itself to being just, we will take care of our happiness," proclaims Benjamin Constant. It is not up to the State to tell us how to be happy. @@ -1228,7 +1308,7 @@ Indeed, in his _Principles of Politics_, Benjamin Constant asserts: > The sovereignty of the people is not unlimited; it is circumscribed within the bounds traced by justice and the rights of individuals. The will of an entire people cannot make just what is unjust. -This is a new critique of Rousseau and the _Social Contract_: even a general will is subject to limits, and it cannot change what falls under natural law. There exists a right anterior and superior to political authority: it is natural law. This right sets the bounds of political power and limits individual freedoms. +This is a new critique of Rousseau and the _Social Contract_: even a general will is subject to limits, and it cannot change what falls under natural law. There exists **a right anterior and superior to political authority**: it is natural law. This right sets the bounds of political power and limits individual freedoms. To say that all legitimate power must be founded on the general will does not mean that everything the general will decides is legitimate. Thus, Constant aligns himself with the Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789, Article II, which stipulates that the State is instituted only to preserve natural rights, namely, freedom, responsibility, and property. There are therefore areas in which political power has no influence: morality and religion, but also the sciences, which fall under the authority of knowledge and finally industry, adds Constant. @@ -1246,9 +1326,11 @@ In other words, in a free society, it is necessary to establish a strict boundar :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville and Democratic Individualism + Alexis de Tocqueville was a keen observer of democracy and a critic of democratic individualism. -![image](assets/en/074.webp) +![John Stuart Mill, On Liberty](assets/en/074.webp) Tocqueville's analysis of democracy essentially extends the distinction made by Constant between the freedom of the Ancients and that of the Moderns. In an 1836 article (_Social and Political State of France Before and Since 1789_), Tocqueville methodically compares aristocratic freedom with democratic freedom. The former is defined as "The enjoyment of a privilege," and Tocqueville cites the example of the Roman citizen who derives his freedom not from nature but from his belonging to Rome. The second concept, known as "the correct notion of freedom," entails an "equal and inalienable right to live independently of one's peers." This modern notion of freedom is thus distinct from the first; it is a political concept, but it is grounded in natural law, and it is considered correct because it applies equally to every person. It is written: @@ -1257,11 +1339,11 @@ The second concept, known as "the correct notion of freedom," entails an "equal Tocqueville is careful to identify all the political and cultural effects of this new way of being, typically modern. An admirer of Pascal, he aims to depict the grandeur and miseries of democracy. -![image](assets/en/075.webp) +![A portrait of Alexis de Tocqueville](assets/en/075.webp) In 1841, in _Democracy in America_, he analyzes the democratic principle that asserts itself in the equalization of conditions against the hierarchy of classes and the authority of tradition. And he observes that this process logically accompanies the dissolution of social influences, the ties of dependency, and atomizes the social bond, thus threatening the very exercise of freedom and political responsibility of the citizen. Moreover, the loss of great ancient ideals (virtue, the common good) leads to the impoverishment of the meaning of life, "to small and vulgar pleasures," to boredom and unease. -Indeed, the equality of condition, which characterizes democracy, means that each person tends to withdraw into themselves, without a link that attaches them to others. The individual independence that this new freedom consecrates makes the exercise of civic virtues difficult by fostering indifference to the public good. As a result, modern democracies expose themselves to the "soft and regular" despotism of statism, which is made possible by the growing disinterest of the people in political life. Democracy thus tends symmetrically towards two excesses that feed each other: +Indeed, the equality of condition, which characterizes democracy, means that each person tends to withdraw into themselves, without a link that attaches them to others. The individual independence that this new freedom consecrates makes the exercise of civic virtues difficult by fostering indifference to the public good. As a result, **modern democracies expose themselves to the "soft and regular" despotism** of statism, which is made possible by the growing disinterest of the people in political life. Democracy thus tends symmetrically towards two excesses that feed each other: On one hand, individualism, that is, the "disinterest in public affairs" and "the love of material pleasures." Tocqueville defines individualism precisely as a feeling of self-sufficiency that leads the citizen to isolate themselves from others and to withdraw into themselves. This is hedonistic narcissism. @@ -1292,7 +1374,7 @@ What did Frédéric Bastiat think of democracy? He answered as early as 1846: > I am for democracy, if by this word you mean: To each the property of his labor, freedom for all, equality for all, justice for all, and peace among all. (_Free Trade_). -![image](assets/en/076.webp) +![Tocqueville, Democracy in America Volume I](assets/en/076.webp) However, in 1848, following the February Revolution, Bastiat was elected deputy of the Landes in an assembly where the socialists made a triumphant entry. These latter only demanded one thing: that the law enshrine the principle of fraternity. In other words, to pass laws to provide work, education, and healthcare for all. @@ -1302,10 +1384,13 @@ Under the reign of socialist ideas, Bastiat observed that the electoral machine The State then becomes, according to Bastiat's words, -> the great fiction through which everyone endeavors to live at the expense of everyone else. ([_The State_](http://bastiat.org/fr/l_etat.html)) -> Bastiat also develops the idea that conflict arises when the law strays from its rightful role. In his famous pamphlet [_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html), he demonstrates why and how the law has become "the battlefield of all greed," meaning a source of privileges, situational rents, and arbitrary taxation. As soon as it is admitted in principle that the law can be diverted from its true mission, that it can violate properties instead of guaranteeing them, a class struggle necessarily follows, either to defend against spoliation or to organize it for one's benefit. +> the great fiction through which everyone endeavors to live at the expense of everyone else. +> +> ([_The State_](http://bastiat.org/fr/l_etat.html)) -![image](assets/en/077.webp) +Bastiat also develops the idea that conflict arises when the law strays from its rightful role. In his famous pamphlet [_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html), he demonstrates why and how the law has become "the battlefield of all greed," meaning a source of privileges, situational rents, and arbitrary taxation. As soon as it is admitted in principle that the law can be diverted from its true mission, that it can violate properties instead of guaranteeing them, a class struggle necessarily follows, either to defend against spoliation or to organize it for one's benefit. + +![Frédéric Bastiat](assets/en/077.webp) In cases where the law merely enforces the rights of each individual and guarantees _"the collective organization of the individual right to legitimate defense,"_ no one is in a position to exploit it for their benefit at the expense of all, to such an extent that the very form of government becomes a secondary question. @@ -1316,7 +1401,10 @@ According to Bastiat, socialist democracy leads to a permanent budget deficit an > But if the government takes it upon itself to raise and regulate wages and cannot do it; if it takes it upon itself to assist all misfortunes and cannot do it; if it takes it upon itself to provide pensions for all workers and cannot do it... Do we not see that, alas, at the end of each disappointment? More than likely, there is an equally inevitable revolution. ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)) Bastiat's conclusion: -Take a look at the globe. Which are the happiest, most moral, and most peaceful people? Those where the Law intervenes the least in private activity; where the government is least felt; where individuality has the most resilience and public opinion the most influence; where administrative mechanisms are the fewest and least complicated; the taxes the least burdensome and the least unequal; popular discontent the least provoked and the least justifiable; where the responsibility of individuals and classes is the most active, and where, consequently, if the morals are not perfect, they tend inexorably to correct themselves; where transactions, agreements, associations are the least hindered; where labor, capital, and population suffer the least artificial displacements ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)) + +> Take a look at the globe. Which are the happiest, most moral, and most peaceful people? Those where the Law intervenes the least in private activity; where the government is least felt; where individuality has the most resilience and public opinion the most influence; where administrative mechanisms are the fewest and least complicated; the taxes the least burdensome and the least unequal; popular discontent the least provoked and the least justifiable; where the responsibility of individuals and classes is the most active, and where, consequently, if the morals are not perfect, they tend inexorably to correct themselves; where transactions, agreements, associations are the least hindered; where labor, capital, and population suffer the least artificial displacements +> +> ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)) ## The Marxist Critique of Capitalism @@ -1324,19 +1412,21 @@ Take a look at the globe. Which are the happiest, most moral, and most peaceful :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### The 19th-Century Critique + It was during the 19th century that the critique of capitalism, particularly the Marxist critique, emerged. -![image](assets/en/078.webp) +![Bastiat, The Law](assets/en/078.webp) What good is the right to speak, write, and vote, Marx exclaimed, if daily life is a struggle for survival? Beyond a certain threshold, poverty equates to a state of servitude. The social order thus benefits everyone only if the principle of a fair distribution of goods is applied. It was this critique of liberalism that led Marx to consider the necessity of a rational and planned control of the social order. Henceforth, the minimal state of the liberals must be succeeded by a strong state capable of establishing real equality, which, according to Marx, goes as far as the abolition of private property and its collectivization. In a more softened version, "social democracy," the state is asked to guarantee not only the abstract rights of man but the concrete rights of man. New rights are created, social and economic rights, guaranteed by the state: the right to work, the right to housing, the right to health (free), the right to education (free). -![image](assets/en/079.webp) +![A photo of Karl Marx](assets/en/079.webp) ### The Myth of the Impartial State The fundamental critique that Marx makes of political liberalism, particularly in his early writings (_Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right_ and _On the Jewish Question_), focuses on the separation of civil society and the state. This critique must be understood within the general framework of his interpretation of the "Bourgeois Revolution." It is this revolution that leads to the formation of a state separated from civil society, which is supposed to aim for the universal, meaning the common interest, by playing the role of an impartial arbitrator. -However, all of this is, for Marx, merely a deceptive appearance. In reality, the state is nothing but an instrument intended to serve the particular interests of the ruling class. In other words, the state is not impartial; it is not separated from civil society. In fact, the liberal state is the site of a double illusion. The illusion of the universal, as we have just seen, and consequently, the illusion of emancipation. Indeed, the Revolution emancipated the citizen by instituting popular sovereignty and equality before the law, but this freedom and equality remain purely ideal and abstract. It is false, Marx says, to think, like Rousseau or Hegel, that man fully realizes his rational nature by becoming a citizen. In reality, one can become a citizen and remain exploited, enslaved, abandoned to the whims of desires, to the anarchy of selfishness, and the law of the strongest. +However, all of this is, for Marx, merely a deceptive appearance. In reality, the state is nothing but an instrument intended to serve the particular interests of the ruling class. In other words, the state is not impartial; it is not separated from civil society. In fact, **the liberal state is the site of a double illusion.** The illusion of the universal, as we have just seen, and consequently, the illusion of emancipation. Indeed, the Revolution emancipated the citizen by instituting popular sovereignty and equality before the law, but this freedom and equality remain purely ideal and abstract. It is false, Marx says, to think, like Rousseau or Hegel, that man fully realizes his rational nature by becoming a citizen. In reality, one can become a citizen and remain exploited, enslaved, abandoned to the whims of desires, to the anarchy of selfishness, and the law of the strongest. The emancipation of the citizen, according to Marx, does not at all signify the emancipation of man, as the Declaration of 1789 suggests, but rather the triumph of destructive individualism and therefore of inequality. Freedom, as the power to do anything that does not harm others, a pillar of human rights, is a purely negative freedom that does not establish a relationship between individuals but, on the contrary, promotes their separation, antagonism, and ultimately their servitude. The freedom of human rights is formal. @@ -1345,7 +1435,8 @@ This political illusion of liberalism is the secular side of the religious illus ### Economic Alienation In fact, according to Marx and historical materialism, economic alienation is at the root of both political and religious alienation. In economic alienation, a result of capitalism (defined as the private ownership of the means of production), the worker is compelled to sell their labor power as a commodity. Moreover, he is deprived of the product of his labor, which the employer owns. He is thus alienated, meaning separated from himself, because his work becomes something foreign to him that he performs out of necessity to survive. Yet, work, for Marx, is the quintessentially human act, the one through which the very essence of man, namely freedom, is realized. This is why the liberation of labor also means restoring humanity to man. -![image](assets/en/080.webp) + +![Karl Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right](assets/en/080.webp) Political revolution is, therefore, an illusion, according to him, as long as it is not accompanied by an economic and social revolution capable of freeing man from capitalist servitude and thus achieving unity between the worker and the citizen, between society and the state, the private sphere and the public sphere. The formal freedom and equality of citizens will thus become a reality in a classless society. @@ -1355,9 +1446,11 @@ Political revolution is, therefore, an illusion, according to him, as long as it :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### The Austrian School Response + The Austrian School of Economics, founded by Carl Menger at the end of the 19th century, opposed Karl Marx's theories from the start. -![image](assets/en/081.webp) +![Karl Marx, Capital Book I](assets/en/081.webp) ### The Class Struggle @@ -1369,7 +1462,8 @@ The Austrians argue that society is not divided into two antagonistic classes, b For example, an employer hires a worker because they need their skills to produce a good or service that consumers desire. The worker, in turn, accepts the job because he needs an income to meet his needs. This relationship is mutually beneficial and not conflictual. Ludwig von Mises highlights that Marx failed to distinguish between what pertains to bourgeois ideology in human rights and what they mean in practice, the upheavals they entail in social life. Many critical thinkers of human rights have made the same mistake. This was also the case for counter-revolutionaries, such as Joseph de Maistre or Louis de Bonald. -![image](assets/en/082.webp) + +![Carl Menger](assets/en/082.webp) In _The Ethics of Liberty_ and _Anatomy of the State_, Murray Rothbard explained that exploitation only makes sense as an aggression against private property and that only the State obtains its revenues through aggression, that is, through taxation, debt, printing money, and thus through inflation. In reality, it is state intervention, and not class struggle, that is the source of violence and conflicts in society. The State, by appropriating resources and regulating the economy, creates distortions and injustices that lead to conflicts and repression. Ending exploitation thus requires reducing the powers of the predatory caste: the State. @@ -1377,16 +1471,19 @@ On this point, see also: _Marxist and Austrian Class Analysis_, Hans Hermann Hop ### Polylogism -The concept of class struggle can also lead to the idea that anything is permissible. Marx argued that notions of good, evil, justice, right, and truth were relative to classes. Human reason, he claimed, is congenitally incapable of finding the truth. The logical structure of the mind differs according to social classes. There is no universally valid logic. +The concept of class struggle can also lead to the idea that anything is permissible. Marx argued that notions of good, evil, justice, right, and truth were relative to classes. Human reason, he claimed, **is congenitally incapable of finding the truth.** The logical structure of the mind differs according to social classes. There is no universally valid logic. Mises coined the term "polylogism" to explain this sophism. "Poly" means many, and "logism" refers to rational discourse and logic. According to Marx, there would be several incompatible logics, that of the proletarians and that of the bourgeoisie. -![image](assets/en/083.webp) +![A photo of Murray N. Rothbard](assets/en/083.webp) Yet until the mid-19th century, no one dared to contest the fact that the logical structure of the mind was identical and common to all human beings. All human relations are based on the assumption of a uniform logical structure. People can engage in discussion because they can appeal to something common to all, namely, the logical structure of reason. Mises writes: -Marx and the Marxists (...) have taught that thought is determined by the class situation of the thinker. What thought produces is not truth, but ideologies. In the context of Marxist philosophy, this term refers to a disguise of the selfish interests of the class to which the thinking individual belongs. That is why it is pointless to discuss anything with people from another social class. Ideologies do not need to be refuted by deductive reasoning; they must be unmasked by denouncing the class situation and the social background of their authors. Thus, Marxists do not discuss the merits of physical theories; they reveal the bourgeois origin of the physicists. (_The Omnipotent Government_). + +> Marx and the Marxists (...) have taught that thought is determined by the class situation of the thinker. What thought produces is not truth, but ideologies. In the context of Marxist philosophy, this term refers to a disguise of the selfish interests of the class to which the thinking individual belongs. That is why it is pointless to discuss anything with people from another social class. Ideologies do not need to be refuted by deductive reasoning; they must be unmasked by denouncing the class situation and the social background of their authors. Thus, Marxists do not discuss the merits of physical theories; they reveal the bourgeois origin of the physicists. +> +> (_The Omnipotent Government_). In the eyes of the Marxists, Ricardo, Freud, Bergson, and Einstein are mistaken because they are bourgeois. Thus, Marxists claim that the logical structure of the mind would be different depending on class membership. Each class would have its logic and therefore its economy, mathematics, physics, and so on. The only logic and the only exact, correct, and eternal science would be that of the Marxists. @@ -1396,7 +1493,7 @@ That is why Georges Sorel, the importer of Marxism into France, would say that v The Austrians argue that Marx's labor theory of value, which posits that the value of a commodity is determined by the amount of labor required for its production, is flawed. They argue that value is subjective and determined by consumer preferences, not by production costs. -![image](assets/en/084.webp) +![A photo of Ludwig von Mises](assets/en/084.webp) Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, one of the early Austrian economists, criticized Marx's labor theory of value in his work _Wert, Kapital und Zins_ (1886). Böhm-Bawerk argued that Marx's theory was based on a fundamental error, namely that all units of labor are identical. In reality, he argued, some labor is more arduous or more productive than others, and this is what determines the value of a commodity. Regarding the theory of profit, Marx argued that profit is a form of theft. It is the concept of exploitation, according to which capitalists extract an unfair surplus value from the labor of workers. The Austrians refute this idea by arguing that wages are determined by the value that workers bring to companies, and that profits are the reward for entrepreneurs who take risks and invest efficiently. Profit is thus a reward for the entrepreneur who takes risks and invests in new products and processes. @@ -1406,9 +1503,9 @@ Friedrich Hayek developed a theory of profit based on the concept of uncertainty Marxists believe that socialism, an economic system in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the workers, is inevitably superior to capitalism. The Austrians, on the other hand, assert that socialism is impossible to achieve in practice, as it would require an unrealistic degree of central planning. -![image](assets/en/085.webp) +![Karl Marx, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk](assets/en/085.webp) -As early as 1922, in his book _Socialism,_ Ludwig von Mises demonstrated that socialism would lead to widespread shortages, as central planners would not be able to make accurate economic calculations without the price system provided by the market. +As early as 1922, in his book _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises demonstrated that socialism would lead to widespread shortages, as central planners would not be able to make accurate economic calculations without the price system provided by the market. ## The Road to Serfdom @@ -1416,16 +1513,18 @@ As early as 1922, in his book _Socialism,_ Ludwig von Mises demonstrated that so :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmed by the rise of government interventionism in the economies of Western democracies, Hayek wrote _The Road to Serfdom_ as a philosophical critique of collectivism, whether from the right or the left. Published in several million copies, thanks to the _Reader’s Digest_, this book has greatly contributed to Hayek's fame in the United States. +### Hayek's Warning Against Collectivism + +Alarmed by the rise of government interventionism in the economies of Western democracies, Hayek wrote _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ as a philosophical critique of collectivism, whether from the right or the left. Published in several million copies, thanks to the _Reader’s Digest_, this book has greatly contributed to Hayek's fame in the United States. -![image](assets/en/086.webp) +![Ludwig von Mises, Socialism](assets/en/086.webp) ### The Allure of Collectivism Written between 1940 and 1943, this brief essay aims to provide an initial assessment of the dirigiste experiments undertaken in the latter half of the 1930s, specifically the nationalizations and Keynesian management of demand that emerged in social democratic Europe and the New Deal era in the United States. Dedicated to "socialists of all parties," it seeks to demonstrate that "the West has gradually abandoned the principle of economic freedom without which no individual or political freedom has previously been possible." Indeed, the same process of political centralization and the same desire to replace a dirigiste organization with traditional market mechanisms are evident everywhere. In Great Britain, as in the United States, it is asserted that the public power must plan everything and can solve everything. -As for authentic liberalism, it is concerned with justice. However, Hayek reminds us that it belongs to civil society, not the State, to organize this solidarity. What differentiates liberalism and socialism is not the ends, but the means. According to Hayek, +As for authentic liberalism, it is concerned with justice. However, Hayek reminds us that it belongs to civil society, not the State, to organize this solidarity. **What differentiates liberalism and socialism is not the ends, but the means.** According to Hayek, > Liberalism wants us to make the best possible use of the forces of competition as a means of coordinating human efforts; it does not want us to leave things as they are. @@ -1439,17 +1538,19 @@ Conversely, the planning of the economy and society in general, the essence of s From the first pages, Hayek establishes a parallel between the triumph of socialist ideals in the West and the concurrent success of totalitarian utopias. -![image](assets/en/087.webp) +![Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom](assets/en/087.webp) > Few people, he warns in his preface, are willing to recognize that the rise of fascism and Nazism was not a reaction against the trends (...) of the previous period, but an inevitable result of these trends. This is something that most people have refused to see, even at the moment when they realized the resemblance offered by certain negative traits of the domestic regimes of Communist Russia and Nazi Germany. The result is that many people who consider themselves very much above the aberrations of Nazism and who sincerely hate all its manifestations, are at the same time working for ideals whose realization would lead directly to this abhorred tyranny. -> According to Hayek, socialism and Nazism share a number of fundamental commonalities, particularly the rejection of individualism and the spontaneous order of the market. Both ideologies prioritize the well-being of the group over the rights and freedoms of individuals, aiming to create a homogeneous society united by shared values and goals. Neither socialists nor Nazis hesitate to use force and coercion to achieve their objectives. They are willing to suppress individual liberties and repress dissent in the name of the greater good of society. -> In the chapter titled "The Socialist Roots of Nazism," Hayek points out that Nazism claims socialist planning (hence its name, national-socialism) of the economy as a means of establishing total control over the population. + +According to Hayek, socialism and Nazism share a number of fundamental commonalities, particularly the rejection of individualism and the spontaneous order of the market. Both ideologies prioritize the well-being of the group over the rights and freedoms of individuals, aiming to create a homogeneous society united by shared values and goals. Neither socialists nor Nazis hesitate to use force and coercion to achieve their objectives. They are willing to suppress individual liberties and repress dissent in the name of the greater good of society. + +In the chapter titled "The Socialist Roots of Nazism," Hayek points out that Nazism claims socialist planning (hence its name, national-socialism) of the economy as a means of establishing total control over the population. German and Italian socialists merely paved the way for Nazism by setting up political parties that directed all activities of the individual, from birth to death, dictating their opinions on everything. It was not the fascists but the socialists who began to regiment children into political organizations, to control their private lives and their thoughts. The Nazis merely adopted the statist, dirigiste, and interventionist discourse already popularized by the Marxists. Many fascist leaders, such as Mussolini in Italy, Laval in France, and Oswald Mosley in Great Britain, had started their political careers as left-wing activists before converting to fascism or Hitlerism, due to ideological proximity. -In conclusion, Hayek calls on his contemporaries to turn their backs on the "madness" and "contemporary obscurantism" to rid humanity of the "errors that have dominated our lives in the recent past." According to him, the best guarantee of freedom is private property. When all means of production are concentrated in the hands of a few organizers, we are subjected to total power, as this economic power becomes a political instrument of control over our entire lives. +In conclusion, Hayek calls on his contemporaries to turn their backs on the "madness" and "contemporary obscurantism" to rid humanity of the "errors that have dominated our lives in the recent past." According to him, **the best guarantee of freedom is private property.** When all means of production are concentrated in the hands of a few organizers, we are subjected to total power, as this economic power becomes a political instrument of control over our entire lives. # The Rise of the Welfare State in the 20th Century @@ -1461,23 +1562,25 @@ In conclusion, Hayek calls on his contemporaries to turn their backs on the "mad :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### The Keynesian Revolution + Capitalism is often accused of being the source of the injunction: "we must always produce more," or of the formula: "consuming is good for growth." However, these ideas do not stem from traditional capitalism but from Keynesianism, which has dominated the field of economic science and the political class since the 1930s. -![image](assets/en/088.webp) +![Nazi party propaganda poster](assets/en/088.webp) ### The Analysis of the 1929 Crisis -Published in 1936, John Maynard Keynes' book, _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, swept everything in its path. Questioning the causes of the Great Depression and the means to emerge from it, he describes a new economic paradigm, which would convert generations of economists and politicians. +Published in 1936, John Maynard Keynes' book, _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, swept everything in its path. Questioning the causes of the Great Depression and the means to emerge from it, he describes a new economic paradigm, which would convert generations of economists and politicians. -![image](assets/en/089.webp) +![John Maynard Keynes](assets/en/089.webp) To summarize broadly, public spending produces growth, and to support the budget deficit, a monetary policy of low interest rates must be implemented. Thus, initially, the discretionary increase in public spending would have a multiplier effect on economic activity, capable of limiting the recession and accelerating recovery. Then, in a second phase, money would be considered an instrument of monetary policy to be used by public authorities for macroeconomic stabilization. -![image](assets/en/090.webp) +![John Maynard Keynes: The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money - 1936](assets/en/090.webp) Keynesianism is therefore the claim to provide the means for strong growth and full employment through public spending and consumption. This growth plan is based on controlling money. -Indeed, according to Keynes, long-term savings act as a brake on consumption and, therefore, on growth. Money must thus lose its purchasing power over time to encourage individuals to consume more quickly, which is beneficial for the economy. In the Keynesian logic of stimulus policies, the main enemy is savings. +Indeed, according to Keynes, long-term savings act as a brake on consumption and, therefore, on growth. Money must thus lose its purchasing power over time to encourage individuals to consume more quickly, which is beneficial for the economy. **In the Keynesian logic of stimulus policies, the main enemy is savings.** According to Keynes, this enemy can be fought with low-interest liquidity. That is why central banks must regulate and control the money supply. @@ -1487,33 +1590,35 @@ With Keynes, the 20th century became the century of trust in experts and plannin For Keynes, state intervention is necessary to stimulate demand and restart the economic engine. This doctrine has triumphed in universities and textbooks. Yet, state intervention has its flaws and can exacerbate crises in the long term, rather than resolving them. -![image](assets/en/091.webp) +![For a new deal](assets/en/091.webp) This is why some economists, in the minority, criticize Keynes for his short-termism and advocate a return to market mechanisms as a more effective alternative to state intervention. Thus, Friedrich Hayek explained that the continual reduction of interest rates by central banks and the artificial expansion of credit could only mislead economic actors, making them invest as if many saved resources existed, since interest rates naturally decrease in response to an increase in savings. This misallocation of resources then fuels an artificial rise in growth, a bubble, which is followed by a brutal recession. It is this contribution to the theory of cycles that earned Hayek the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974. Along with others, he also highlighted the danger of centralizing and manipulating currency. This is notably the case with the Frenchman Jacques Rueff, also a disciple and friend of Ludwig von Mises. -![image](assets/en/092.webp) +![Fear the Boom and Bust: Keynes vs. Hayek](assets/en/092.webp) + +[Fear the Boom and Bust: Keynes vs. Hayek - Economics Rap Battle](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0nERTFo-Sk) Graduating from the École Polytechnique in 1919, Rueff had a distinguished career as a senior civil servant, serving as an economic advisor to numerous governments in the 1920s and 1930s. His major work, _L’ordre social_ (The Social Order), was published in 1945, in which he develops a powerful argument in favor of the free market from economic, philosophical, and moral perspectives. -![image](assets/en/093.webp) +![Ludwig von Mises & Jacques Rueff](assets/en/093.webp) -This book includes a key chapter titled "Sound Money or Totalitarian State." In this chapter, he develops two propositions. The first is: "False money breeds social disorder." The second proposition follows from the first: "Social disorder breeds social slavery". False money is paper currency, disconnected from any physical reality and manipulated by the ruling power. Social disorder is the inflation and consumerism that result from it. Social slavery is society's dependence on the state, the loss of all financial, moral, and political autonomy. +This book includes a key chapter titled "Sound Money or Totalitarian State." In this chapter, he develops two propositions. The first is: "False money breeds social disorder." The second proposition follows from the first: "Social disorder breeds social slavery". **False money is paper currency, disconnected from any physical reality and manipulated by the ruling power.** Social disorder is the inflation and consumerism that result from it. Social slavery is society's dependence on the state, the loss of all financial, moral, and political autonomy. In 1947, five years after the French translation of _The General Theory_, he published an article titled: _The Errors of the General Theory of Lord Keynes_. He issued the following warnings: The next period of depression is likely to lead to the widespread adoption of the policy suggested by Lord Keynes around the world. I am not afraid to state that this policy will only reduce unemployment to a small extent, but it will have profound consequences on the evolution of the countries in which it is applied. (...) Because of Lord Keynes, the next cycle will be an opportunity for profound political changes, which some hope for, while others fear. In any case, based on a false theory, the remedies that will be implemented will have profoundly different repercussions from those they were intended to promote. Their inefficacy will be, for a large part of the public opinion, a new reason to demand the substitution of a regime which, by denying itself, will have destroyed itself. Starting from 1958, a policy to rectify the French economy, inspired by Jacques Rueff, was conducted under the authority of General de Gaulle. It will lead to the famous "Trente Glorieuses" (Thirty Glorious Years). -![image](assets/en/094.webp) +![Jacques Rueff, Sound Money or Totalitarian State](assets/en/094.webp) -In _The Monetary Sin of the West_, in 1971, Rueff writes: +In _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, in 1971, Rueff writes: > It is through the budget deficit that men lose their freedom. He adds: "Inflation is to subsidize expenditures that yield nothing with money that does not exist." According to him: "One would think, observing the evolution of the international monetary system, that the West is applying Lenin's advice, according to which: To destroy the bourgeois regime, it suffices to corrupt its currency. -![image](assets/en/095.webp) +![Rueff Jacques, The Monetary Sin of the West - 1971](assets/en/095.webp) In 1976, he attacked Keynesianism one last time in an article for the newspaper _Le Monde_. No religion has spread across the world as quickly as that of employment. Driven by the memory of the unemployment tragedies that ravaged England and Germany during the 1920s, it has become the foremost principle, whether expressed or implied, of economic policy in almost every country in the world. Concealing its purpose beneath the clever and specious guise of the "general theory," elevated by enthusiastic and blind disciples to the status of a governmental action bible, it has masked the true face of the inflation policies it covered. Through this detour, it has given governments a good conscience, which, having exhausted their possibilities for taxes and borrowing, resorted to the deceptive delights of monetary creation. (_The End of the Keynesian Era or: When the Long Run Ran Out_, Euromoney, April 1976, pp.70-7.) @@ -1524,21 +1629,25 @@ No religion has spread across the world as quickly as that of employment. Driven :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Money and Civilization + Money is a tool that has enabled humans to move beyond barter, save, and coordinate on a large scale through the market. It has made possible the specialization of labor, comparative advantage, gains from trade, and economic calculation. Without money, there would be no modern civilization. ### Gold as the Global Standard And it turns out that a particular form of money gradually distinguished itself from others to become, over the centuries, the global standard of reference, which is gold. -![image](assets/en/096.webp) +![French postal Stamp from 1996](assets/en/096.webp) Indeed, gold is a hard currency, difficult to produce, costly to counterfeit. The market has chosen gold as the most reliable, most durable, and least manipulable currency. Historical evidence suggests that when individuals have the option to choose their currency, they tend to opt for gold. This is why, in _Human Action_, Ludwig von Mises writes: > The gold standard was the world standard of the capitalist era, of increasing prosperity, freedom, and democracy \[…\] It was the international standard that international trade and the world capital markets needed \[…\] It carried industry, capital, and Western civilization to the most remote corners of the planet, creating wealth previously unknown. -> But the gold standard constrains governments to fund their expenses through taxes rather than inflation, which explains a certain hostility from political and economic elites towards this system. Because linking a currency to a precious metal limits the central bank's ability to finance the growth of the welfare state through indirect taxation, which can lead to inflation. -> That's why, as early as 1923, Keynes declared: + +But the gold standard constrains governments to fund their expenses through taxes rather than inflation, which explains a certain hostility from political and economic elites towards this system. Because linking a currency to a precious metal limits the central bank's ability to finance the growth of the welfare state through indirect taxation, which can lead to inflation. + +That's why, as early as 1923, Keynes declared: > In truth, the gold standard is already a barbarous relic. (...) The defenders of the old standard do not notice how far it is now removed from the spirit and needs of the new times. (J.M. Keynes, _Monetary Reform_). @@ -1554,13 +1663,15 @@ At that time, with the Vietnam War in particular, the increase in the U.S. gover Indeed, for many Keynesian economists, the abandonment of the gold standard gave governments the flexibility needed to respond to or prevent economic crises. -![image](assets/en/098.webp) +![Richard Nixon - USA president](assets/en/098.webp) According to Alan Greenspan, former chairman of the Federal Reserve, the American central bank, the gold standard is incompatible with state debt and the financing of the welfare state: > I have always harbored nostalgia for the price stability inherent in the gold standard; a stable currency was its primary goal. However, I have long since conceded that the gold standard does not easily accommodate the prevailing view of a government's function, particularly its duty to ensure a social security system. \[…\] Most Americans have tolerated inflation as the price to pay for having a modern welfare state. There are no longer any proponents of the gold standard, and I see little possibility of its return. (_The Age of Turbulence_). -> On the contrary, for people like Jacques Rueff, abandoning precious metal is a mistake that can only lead to a continuous decrease in purchasing power, accompanied by a reduction in living standards, an increase in income inequality, and growing economic instability. -> ![image](assets/en/099.webp) + +On the contrary, for people like Jacques Rueff, abandoning precious metal is a mistake that can only lead to a continuous decrease in purchasing power, accompanied by a reduction in living standards, an increase in income inequality, and growing economic instability. + +![Alan GreenSpan - The Age of Turbulence](assets/en/099.webp) In February 1965, during a televised press conference, General de Gaulle, inspired directly by Rueff, proposed a return to the gold standard. He stated: @@ -1568,17 +1679,17 @@ In February 1965, during a televised press conference, General de Gaulle, inspir ### A monetary market without a State monopoly is possible -In 1976, Hayek proposed an alternative to the State's monopoly on currency creation: competition between currencies. In his book, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), he envisioned a monetary market without a State monopoly in which several private currencies would coexist. The creation and management of different currencies by private entities would allow individuals to choose the most stable and reliable currency, thus encouraging competition and discipline among issuers. +In 1976, Hayek proposed an alternative to the State's monopoly on currency creation: competition between currencies. In his book, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), he envisioned a monetary market without a State monopoly in which several private currencies would coexist. The creation and management of different currencies by private entities would allow individuals to choose the most stable and reliable currency, thus encouraging competition and discipline among issuers. -![image](assets/en/100.webp) +![French General de Gaulle](assets/en/100.webp) He writes: > As long as we have not restored a situation in which governments (as well as other public authorities) know that if they spend too much they will be, like anyone else, unable to meet their obligations, there will be no pause in this process which, by substituting collective activity for private activity, threatens to stifle individual initiative. Under the current unlimited democracy, in which the government has the power to confer special material benefits to particular groups, it is compelled to buy the support of enough of them to constitute a majority. (Ch. XXI, The effects of finance and public spending). -For Hayek, the past instability of the market economy stems from the fact that the most important regulator of market mechanisms, namely money, cannot itself be the product of a market process. +For Hayek, the past instability of the market economy stems from the fact that **the most important regulator of market mechanisms, namely money, cannot itself be the product of a market process.** -![image](assets/en/101.webp) +![Friedrich Hayek, The Denationalization of money](assets/en/101.webp) Hayek believed that a free market of private currencies would lead to greater monetary stability. Nearly 50 years later, a [cryptocurrency](https://planb.academy/resources/glossary/cryptocurrency) like Bitcoin embodies Hayek's competitive vision by offering a decentralized alternative to the monopolistic system of central banks. Bitcoin, with its fixed emission limit of 21 million units, serves as a safeguard against inflation and the arbitrariness of regulators. diff --git a/courses/phi101/es.md b/courses/phi101/es.md index f09e6ef965c..a98b63decfd 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/es.md +++ b/courses/phi101/es.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Desde la Antigüedad hasta la Ilustración, la libertad ascendió a medida que l :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introducción al curso + ¡Bienvenido al curso PHI101! Este curso te invita a explorar la evolución de la libertad a lo largo de la historia analizando las grandes corrientes de pensamiento que la han moldeado. Descubrirás cómo se ha construido la noción de libertad a lo largo de los siglos, ya sea en oposición o en colaboración con el poder, a través de un recorrido histórico que va desde la Antigüedad hasta los debates contemporáneos. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Finalmente, esta sección examinará cómo el Estado de bienestar fue ganando te :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### ¿Por qué estudiar la historia de la libertad? + ¿Por qué titular este curso: Una historia de la libertad? Porque necesitamos entender la relación entre ideas y eventos, para juzgar mejor nuestra era y actuar con discernimiento. Es en el pasado donde encontramos los elementos para una mejor comprensión de lo que es la libertad y las razones por las cuales debemos valorarla. -> Cuando el pasado ya no ilumina el futuro, el espíritu camina en la oscuridad (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracia en América_.) +> Cuando el pasado ya no ilumina el futuro, el espíritu camina en la oscuridad (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracia en América](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/es/001.webp) @@ -109,7 +113,7 @@ La segunda filosofía se encuentra entre autores como Rousseau, Robespierre o Ka ![image](assets/es/007.webp) -> "Aquel que se atreve a emprender el establecimiento de un pueblo", dice Rousseau, "debe sentirse capaz de cambiar, por decirlo de alguna manera, la naturaleza humana, de transformar a cada individuo que, por sí mismo, es un todo perfecto y solitario, en parte de un todo mayor del cual este individuo recibe, de cierta manera, su vida y ser." (_Contrato Social_) +> "Aquel que se atreve a emprender el establecimiento de un pueblo", dice Rousseau, "debe sentirse capaz de cambiar, por decirlo de alguna manera, la naturaleza humana, de transformar a cada individuo que, por sí mismo, es un todo perfecto y solitario, en parte de un todo mayor del cual este individuo recibe, de cierta manera, su vida y ser." (_[Contrato Social](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Desde esta perspectiva, la misión del legislador es organizar, modificar, incluso abolir la propiedad si lo considera bueno. Para Rousseau, la propiedad no es natural sino convencional, como la sociedad misma. A su vez, Robespierre establece el principio de que "La propiedad es el derecho de todo ciudadano a disfrutar y disponer de la porción de bienes garantizada por la ley." No existe un derecho natural a la propiedad; solo hay un número indefinido de arreglos posibles y contingentes. @@ -119,6 +123,8 @@ Desde esta perspectiva, la misión del legislador es organizar, modificar, inclu :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### El mito del legislador providencial + Cuando uno abre los libros de texto, Bastiat señaló, se aprende que la humanidad estaría condenada a la nada sin la intervención del poder: > "Basta con abrir, casi al azar, un libro de filosofía, política o historia para ver cuán arraigada está en nuestro país esta idea, nacida de los estudios clásicos y madre del Socialismo, de que la humanidad es una materia inerte que recibe del poder vida, organización, moralidad y riqueza; — o peor aún, que la humanidad misma tiende hacia su degradación y solo es detenida en esta pendiente por la mano misteriosa del Legislador." ([_La Ley_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -176,6 +182,8 @@ Unos días antes de su muerte en Roma en 1850, Bastiat confió a su amigo Prospe :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### La historia escrita por los vencedores + Es conocido, la historia la escriben los vencedores. La atención se centra a menudo en la conquista del poder, en las vidas de los líderes en el poder y en los conflictos que los oponen a aquellos que desean tomar su lugar. ![image](assets/es/010.webp) @@ -219,6 +227,8 @@ Esta tesis también se encuentra en una obra monumental que data de 1983: _Derec :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### La visión socialista de la historia + Sin embargo, existe otra perspectiva sobre la historia. Ha sido bastante exitosa y durante mucho tiempo disfrutó del apoyo de intelectuales occidentales y representantes del Sur Global. Esta es la visión socialista y marxista de la historia. ![image](assets/es/013.webp) @@ -238,7 +248,7 @@ Este análisis refleja un malentendido del valor excedente y la naturaleza coope ### La Revolución Industrial en Cuestión -De hecho, el análisis marxista distorsiona la realidad histórica de la Revolución Industrial. Ludwig von Mises aclaró este tema en su tratado de economía [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (ver especialmente el capítulo titulado [Interpretación Popular de la Revolución Industrial](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) así como en una serie de conferencias publicadas bajo el título: [_Política Económica: Pensamientos para Hoy y Mañana_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (También vale la pena leer, La Mentalidad Anticapitalista [aquí](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) y [aquí](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +De hecho, el análisis marxista distorsiona la realidad histórica de la Revolución Industrial. Ludwig von Mises aclaró este tema en su tratado de economía [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (ver especialmente el capítulo titulado [Interpretación Popular de la Revolución Industrial](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) así como en una serie de conferencias publicadas bajo el título: [_Política Económica: Pensamientos para Hoy y Mañana_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (También vale la pena leer, La Mentalidad Anticapitalista [aquí](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) y [aquí](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![imagen](assets/es/014.webp) @@ -286,7 +296,9 @@ Es esta Europa radicalmente descentralizada la que produjo parlamentos, dietas y :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -En el último capítulo de _Anatomía del Estado_ (traducido al francés como _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, por ediciones Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propone una teoría de la historia. Este capítulo muy corto se titula: Historia, una carrera entre el poder del estado y el poder social. Según Rothbard, la historia puede entenderse como un conflicto perpetuo entre dos principios fundamentales: +### El poder del Estado frente al poder social + +En el último capítulo de _[Anatomía del Estado](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (traducido al francés como _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, por ediciones Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propone una teoría de la historia. Este capítulo muy corto se titula: Historia, una carrera entre el poder del estado y el poder social. Según Rothbard, la historia puede entenderse como un conflicto perpetuo entre dos principios fundamentales: ![image](assets/es/017.webp) @@ -321,7 +333,7 @@ Según Rothbard, la historia no es un proceso lineal, sino más bien una oscilac Desde el siglo XVII hasta el siglo XIX, en muchos países occidentales, hubo periodos de aceleración del poder social y un aumento correspondiente en la libertad, la paz y el bienestar material. Pero Rothbard nos recuerda que el siglo XX estuvo marcado por un resurgimiento del poder del Estado, con consecuencias nefastas: Un aumento en la esclavitud, la guerra y la destrucción: > Durante este siglo, la raza humana enfrenta, una vez más, el reinado virulento del Estado; el Estado ahora armado con el poder creativo del hombre, confiscado y pervertido para sus propios fines. -> ¿Qué es, después de todo, una sociedad libre? Es una sociedad sin monopolio. En su obra de filosofía política, _Ética de la Libertad_ (1982), Rothbard responde: "una sociedad en la que no hay posibilidad legal de agresión coercitiva contra la persona o propiedad de un individuo". Es por esto que, según él, la filosofía política, que debe definir los principios de una sociedad justa, se reduce a una única pregunta: "¿Quién posee legítimamente qué?" +> ¿Qué es, después de todo, una sociedad libre? Es una sociedad sin monopolio. En su obra de filosofía política, _[Ética de la Libertad](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard responde: "una sociedad en la que no hay posibilidad legal de agresión coercitiva contra la persona o propiedad de un individuo". Es por esto que, según él, la filosofía política, que debe definir los principios de una sociedad justa, se reduce a una única pregunta: "¿Quién posee legítimamente qué?" ![image](assets/es/019.webp) @@ -343,6 +355,8 @@ Y añade: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### El legado de la democracia ateniense + La experiencia de la democracia ateniense ha dejado una marca perdurable en la historia del pensamiento político y continúa inspirando ideales de democracia y participación ciudadana en el mundo de hoy. ![image](assets/es/020.webp) @@ -437,6 +451,8 @@ El único medio que tenemos para acercarnos a la verdad son la crítica y la dis :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Un imperio cosmopolita + El Imperio Romano fue una vasta entidad cosmopolita. En su apogeo, alrededor del año 117 d.C., era un inmenso estado multiétnico y multilingüe: - En el oeste, se extendía desde Gran Bretaña (la actual Inglaterra) hasta España, pasando por la Galia (la actual Francia) y el norte de África. @@ -538,6 +554,8 @@ Afirmar que la ley no puede reducirse meramente a los estatutos promulgados por :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Declive y colapso + ¿Por qué declinó y finalmente cayó Roma? Muchos piensan que el Imperio Romano colapsó repentinamente, bajo el impacto de las invasiones bárbaras. Sin embargo, las causas del colapso del Imperio Romano se encuentran mucho antes, en el imperialismo y el dirigismo económico y monetario. En 1734, en sus _Consideraciones sobre las causas de la grandeza de los romanos y de su decadencia_, Montesquieu desarrolló una tesis original y unificada para explicar el ascenso y la caída del poder romano: La libertad ganada bajo la República y luego perdida bajo el Imperio. Desde el momento en que la dominación romana se expandió, se perdió la libertad y comenzó la decadencia. @@ -609,6 +627,8 @@ Y añade: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Raíces cristianas de la libertad individual + La idea cristiana de libertad se desarrolló en la teología medieval de San Agustín en el siglo IV, hasta Santo Tomás de Aquino en el siglo XIII. ¿Cuál es esta idea? ![image](assets/es/037.webp) @@ -662,6 +682,8 @@ Según Santo Tomás: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### La autonomía de la razón + En la Edad Media, la razón y la fe compiten por el acceso a la verdad. Siguiendo a Abelardo y Alberto Magno, Tomás de Aquino, en el siglo XIII, eligió defender los derechos de la razón y su autonomía en relación con la fe. ![image](assets/es/040.webp) @@ -701,6 +723,8 @@ Desde entonces, el racionalismo religioso prevalecería definitivamente sobre el :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### El sistema teológico-político + En la Edad Media, la Iglesia y las monarquías cristianas heredaron un modelo político del Imperio Romano, al cual los historiadores llaman el sistema teológico-político, es decir, un sistema donde el poder es sagrado, es decir, donde el líder político es también un líder religioso. Esto es por lo que las sociedades medievales se caracterizan por el unanimismo político-religioso. La base del poder político se fundamenta en la fe Cristiana (o Musulmana). Se considera a sí mismo como el guardián de la ortodoxia cultural y religiosa y trata como parias a aquellos que se desvían de esta unanimidad. En este contexto, incluso si se pudiera conceder cierta tolerancia a aquellos que se desligan de la visión cultural común (como los judíos), no se les podría reconocer ningún derecho al pluralismo. No fue hasta el final de la Edad Media, con la conquista de América, que el problema de las libertades civiles se volvió crucial para la Iglesia y vio la emergencia de una primera filosofía del derecho que afirmaba y protegía las libertades individuales, legitimaba el pluralismo y condenaba la coerción estatal. @@ -740,6 +764,8 @@ La tentación teocrática de la Iglesia también choca con la teoría del "derec :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### El hombre creado a imagen de Dios + El pensamiento antiguo subordinaba al hombre a un cosmos divino, es decir, a un universo perfecto del cual él era simplemente una parte. El monoteísmo, por otro lado, afirma el valor infinitamente superior del hombre sobre la naturaleza, en la medida en que el hombre es creado a imagen de Dios. Este punto crucial está en el origen de una verdadera revolución ética. La Biblia afirma el valor sagrado e infinito de cada ser humano. Es por esto que la ética bíblica cambia nuestra relación con el mal. Trae una sensibilidad aguda y sin precedentes al sufrimiento humano. Por lo tanto, nos anima a considerar como anormales e insoportables males que la humanidad hasta entonces había encontrado perfectamente soportables, especialmente el mal hecho a otros, a los débiles, a los inocentes. @@ -775,6 +801,8 @@ La idea de humanidad progresa. Efectivamente llegó a considerarse que solo hay :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### El cristianismo y la economía libre + Hemos visto que el cristianismo impone un deber moral a las personas de trabajar hacia la mejora del mundo. Dios quiere que el hombre sea feliz pero no quiere lograr su bien en su lugar. Por lo tanto, corresponde al cristiano luchar contra el mal moral, amar a su prójimo, ayudar a las víctimas, en resumen, trabajar por un mundo más justo y humano. ¿Es el capitalismo, es decir, la economía libre basada en la propiedad privada y la libertad de contratos, compatible con el deber cristiano? Parte de la respuesta yace en el hecho de que el capitalismo se originó en un contexto religioso, mucho antes de la Reforma Protestante. La otra parte de la respuesta consiste en observar el hecho de que el capitalismo es el mejor medio para mejorar la condición material y moral de los individuos. Solo una economía libre, basada en los derechos de propiedad y la cooperación voluntaria, es capaz de elevar a las personas de la miseria de manera sostenible. @@ -843,6 +871,8 @@ Además, si dos monedas diferentes se benefician del curso legal, los agentes ac :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Las guerras de religión y la Ilustración + Desde el Renacimiento, Europa iba a ser devastada por guerras de religión. Por lo tanto, la tolerancia se convirtió en una de las grandes batallas de la Ilustración. ![image](assets/es/050.webp) @@ -880,7 +910,7 @@ En la _Décima Carta_, "Sobre el Comercio", Voltaire describe la mentalidad fran ### La Verdad Requiere Libertad -Sin embargo, Francia no carecía de grandes mentes. Es poco conocido pero Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barón de Laulne fue ante todo un pensador líder antes de convertirse en el Controlador General de Finanzas bajo Luis XVI. Fue el autor de un tratado magistral sobre economía política, _Reflexiones sobre la Formación y Distribución de la Riqueza_ (1766), precediendo a _La Riqueza de las Naciones_ de Adam Smith (1776). +Sin embargo, Francia no carecía de grandes mentes. Es poco conocido pero Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barón de Laulne fue ante todo un pensador líder antes de convertirse en el Controlador General de Finanzas bajo Luis XVI. Fue el autor de un tratado magistral sobre economía política, _Reflexiones sobre la Formación y Distribución de la Riqueza_ (1766), precediendo a _[La Riqueza de las Naciones](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ de Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/es/052.webp) @@ -899,6 +929,8 @@ En otras palabras, ser tolerante no significa ser hostil hacia la religión. Sig :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Los orígenes del liberalismo económico + El liberalismo económico a menudo se asocia con una tradición anglosajona que proviene de Adam Smith, en contraste con el "liberalismo político", que se dice proviene del Iluminismo continental, particularmente en Francia. Esta visión es incorrecta. ![image](assets/es/053.webp) @@ -962,6 +994,8 @@ En resumen, si todos pueden perseguir libremente su interés privado en respeto :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tres eventos que cambiaron la historia + 1776 es un año que a menudo pasa desapercibido en los libros de historia. Pero en tres países, Francia, Escocia y América del Norte, varios eventos dejarán una marca indeleble en la historia de la libertad. ### La Desgracia de Turgot @@ -1002,7 +1036,7 @@ También es un tratado sobre filosofía en el sentido de que demuestra cómo el ### Un Manifiesto por la Libertad en América -En 1776, un inglés llamado Thomas Paine publicó en América un panfleto virulento criticando la monarquía inglesa y abogando por la independencia de los colonos americanos: _Common Sense_. +En 1776, un inglés llamado Thomas Paine publicó en América un panfleto virulento criticando la monarquía inglesa y abogando por la independencia de los colonos americanos: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/es/059.webp) @@ -1064,6 +1098,8 @@ Esta idea de orden espontáneo se convertiría en un concepto clave en el trabaj :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### La secularización y la sociedad moderna + La gran novedad de este período moderno en la historia occidental es la emergencia de una sociedad que se organiza fuera de la dependencia religiosa. Esto no significa la desaparición de la creencia religiosa o la muerte de Dios. Pero Dios se convierte en un asunto privado, ya no mezclado con los asuntos políticos. No hay desaparición de la religión sino un destronamiento de su papel guía. Se convierte en un sistema de creencias individuales. La secularización del mundo occidental no ocurrió de la noche a la mañana. Fue preparada por ideas. Como a menudo, la filosofía está a la vanguardia de los grandes cambios culturales. @@ -1146,7 +1182,7 @@ En América, no hubo dirigismo económico, ni una bancarrota monetaria como la d Con Rousseau y Robespierre, los franceses querían creer que la Nación o la voluntad general tenía poder ilimitado y justificaba todo. Del hecho de que el pueblo gobernaba, se concluyó que tenían todos los derechos. Claramente había una contradicción entre los grandes principios de la Revolución y los medios empleados para hacerlos triunfar. -Este es, además, el sentido de la observación de Friedrich Hayek en su libro _La Constitución de la Libertad_: +Este es, además, el sentido de la observación de Friedrich Hayek en su libro _[La Constitución de la Libertad](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > El factor decisivo que hizo vanos los esfuerzos de la Revolución a favor de la promoción de la libertad individual fue que creó la ilusión de que, en la medida en que todo el poder había sido entregado al pueblo, todas las precauciones contra el abuso de este poder se habían vuelto innecesarias. @@ -1160,6 +1196,8 @@ Este es, además, el sentido de la observación de Friedrich Hayek en su libro _ :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### La libertad antigua frente a la moderna + Según Benjamin Constant, la libertad, en nuestras sociedades modernas, ya no puede entenderse de la manera de las sociedades de la Antigüedad como participación directa en los asuntos de la ciudad. ![image](assets/es/070.webp) @@ -1167,7 +1205,7 @@ Según Benjamin Constant, la libertad, en nuestras sociedades modernas, ya no pu ### Libertad en la Vida Privada En la antigüedad, el individuo era soberano en los asuntos públicos pero esclavizado en todas sus relaciones privadas. El sacrificio de la libertad individual se compensaba con el uso de los derechos políticos: El derecho a ejercer directamente diversas partes de la soberanía, deliberar en la plaza pública, votar leyes, pronunciar juicios, evaluar y juzgar a los magistrados. Es una libertad política y colectiva: -La libertad de los antiguos consistía en una participación activa y constante en el poder colectivo. Nuestra libertad, por otro lado, debe consistir en el disfrute pacífico de la independencia privada; se sigue que debemos estar mucho más apegados que los antiguos a nuestra independencia individual. (_Sobre la Libertad de los Antiguos Comparada con la de los Modernos_ (1819)) +La libertad de los antiguos consistía en una participación activa y constante en el poder colectivo. Nuestra libertad, por otro lado, debe consistir en el disfrute pacífico de la independencia privada; se sigue que debemos estar mucho más apegados que los antiguos a nuestra independencia individual. (_[Sobre la Libertad de los Antiguos Comparada con la de los Modernos](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/es/071.webp) @@ -1175,7 +1213,7 @@ La libertad moderna es la libertad civil, que incluye la libertad económica y s Esta definición de libertad se encuentra en John Stuart Mill: -> La única libertad que merece el nombre, es la de perseguir nuestro propio bien a nuestra manera, siempre y cuando no intentemos privar a otros del suyo o impedir sus esfuerzos para obtenerlo. (...) La humanidad gana más permitiendo que cada persona viva como le parezca que obligándola a vivir como parece bueno para otros. (_Sobre la Libertad_, 1859) +> La única libertad que merece el nombre, es la de perseguir nuestro propio bien a nuestra manera, siempre y cuando no intentemos privar a otros del suyo o impedir sus esfuerzos para obtenerlo. (...) La humanidad gana más permitiendo que cada persona viva como le parezca que obligándola a vivir como parece bueno para otros. (_[Sobre la Libertad](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/es/072.webp) @@ -1211,6 +1249,8 @@ En otras palabras, en una sociedad libre, es necesario establecer un límite est :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville y el individualismo democrático + Alexis de Tocqueville fue un observador agudo de la democracia y un crítico del individualismo democrático. ![image](assets/es/074.webp) @@ -1286,6 +1326,8 @@ Mira el globo. ¿Cuáles son los pueblos más felices, más morales y más pací :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### La crítica del siglo XIX + Fue durante el siglo XIX que surgió la crítica al capitalismo, y en particular la crítica marxista. ![image](assets/es/078.webp) @@ -1318,6 +1360,8 @@ La revolución política es por lo tanto una ilusión, según él, mientras no v :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### La respuesta de la Escuela Austriaca + La Escuela Austriaca de Economía, fundada por Carl Menger a finales del siglo XIX, se opuso desde el principio a las teorías de Karl Marx. ![image](assets/es/081.webp) @@ -1372,7 +1416,7 @@ Los marxistas creen que el socialismo, un sistema económico en el que los medio ![image](assets/es/085.webp) -Ya en 1922, en su libro _Socialismo,_ Ludwig von Mises demostró que el socialismo llevaría a escaseces generalizadas, ya que los planificadores centrales no serían capaces de realizar cálculos económicos precisos sin el sistema de precios proporcionado por el mercado. +Ya en 1922, en su libro _[Socialismo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises demostró que el socialismo llevaría a escaseces generalizadas, ya que los planificadores centrales no serían capaces de realizar cálculos económicos precisos sin el sistema de precios proporcionado por el mercado. ## El Camino de la Servidumbre @@ -1380,7 +1424,9 @@ Ya en 1922, en su libro _Socialismo,_ Ludwig von Mises demostró que el socialis :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmado por el auge del intervencionismo gubernamental en las economías de las democracias occidentales, Hayek escribió _El Camino de la Servidumbre_ como una crítica filosófica del colectivismo, ya sea de derecha o de izquierda. Publicado en varios millones de copias, gracias al _Reader’s Digest_, este libro ha contribuido enormemente a la fama de Hayek en los Estados Unidos. +### La advertencia de Hayek contra el colectivismo + +Alarmado por el auge del intervencionismo gubernamental en las economías de las democracias occidentales, Hayek escribió _[El Camino de la Servidumbre](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ como una crítica filosófica del colectivismo, ya sea de derecha o de izquierda. Publicado en varios millones de copias, gracias al _Reader’s Digest_, este libro ha contribuido enormemente a la fama de Hayek en los Estados Unidos. ![image](assets/es/086.webp) @@ -1423,13 +1469,15 @@ En conclusión, Hayek llama a sus contemporáneos a dar la espalda a la "locura" :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### La revolución keynesiana + El capitalismo es a menudo acusado de ser la fuente de la orden: "siempre debemos producir más", o de la fórmula: "consumir es bueno para el crecimiento". Sin embargo, estas ideas no provienen del capitalismo tradicional, sino del keynesianismo, que ha dominado el campo de la ciencia económica y la clase política desde la década de 1930. ![image](assets/es/088.webp) ### El Análisis de la Crisis de 1929 -Publicado en 1936, el libro de John Maynard Keynes: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, arrasó con todo a su paso. Cuestionando las causas de la Gran Depresión y los medios para salir de ella, describe un nuevo paradigma económico, que convertiría a generaciones de economistas y políticos. +Publicado en 1936, el libro de John Maynard Keynes: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, arrasó con todo a su paso. Cuestionando las causas de la Gran Depresión y los medios para salir de ella, describe un nuevo paradigma económico, que convertiría a generaciones de economistas y políticos. ![image](assets/es/089.webp) @@ -1470,7 +1518,7 @@ A partir de 1958, se llevará a cabo una política para rectificar la economía ![image](assets/es/094.webp) -En _El Pecado Monetario del Occidente_, en 1971, Rueff escribe: +En _[El Pecado Monetario del Occidente](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, en 1971, Rueff escribe: > Es a través del déficit presupuestario que los hombres pierden su libertad. @@ -1487,6 +1535,8 @@ Ninguna religión se ha extendido por el mundo tan rápidamente como la del empl :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### El dinero y la civilización + El dinero es una herramienta que ha permitido a los humanos ir más allá del trueque, ahorrar y coordinarse a gran escala a través del mercado. Ha hecho posible la especialización del trabajo, las ventajas comparativas, las ganancias del comercio, el cálculo económico. Sin dinero, no hay civilización moderna. ### El Oro como Estándar Global @@ -1532,7 +1582,7 @@ En febrero de 1965, durante una conferencia de prensa televisada, el General de ### Un mercado monetario sin monopolio estatal es posible -En 1976, Hayek propuso una alternativa al monopolio del Estado sobre la creación de moneda: competencia entre monedas. En su libro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_La desestatización del dinero_), imaginó un mercado monetario sin monopolio estatal en el que existirían varias monedas privadas. La creación y gestión de diferentes monedas por entidades privadas permitiría a los individuos elegir la moneda más estable y confiable, fomentando así la competencia y la disciplina entre los emisores. +En 1976, Hayek propuso una alternativa al monopolio del Estado sobre la creación de moneda: competencia entre monedas. En su libro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[La desestatización del dinero](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), imaginó un mercado monetario sin monopolio estatal en el que existirían varias monedas privadas. La creación y gestión de diferentes monedas por entidades privadas permitiría a los individuos elegir la moneda más estable y confiable, fomentando así la competencia y la disciplina entre los emisores. ![image](assets/es/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/et.md b/courses/phi101/et.md index 87478153470..ca16f8f1b67 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/et.md +++ b/courses/phi101/et.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Alates antiikajast kuni valgustusajastuni tõusis vabadus, kui ühiskonnad võts :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Sissejuhatus kursusesse + Tere tulemast kursusele PHI101! See kursus kutsub teid uurima vabaduse arengut läbi ajaloo, analüüsides peamisi mõttesuundi, mis on seda kujundanud. Avastate, kuidas on vabaduse mõiste kujunenud sajandite jooksul, kas võimule vastu seistes või sellega koostööd tehes, läbi ajaloolise rännaku antiikajast tänapäevastesse aruteludesse. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Kas olete valmis alustama seda ainulaadset filosoofilist teekonda vabaduse otsin :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Miks uurida vabaduse ajalugu? + Miks nimetada seda kursust vabaduse ajalooks? Sest me peame mõistma ideede ja sündmuste vahelist suhet, et paremini hinnata meie ajastut ja tegutseda otsustavalt. Just minevikust leiame elemendid paremaks mõistmiseks, mis on vabadus ja miks me peame seda hindama. -> Kui minevik ei valgusta enam tulevikku, kõnnib vaim pimeduses (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokraatia Ameerikas_.) +> Kui minevik ei valgusta enam tulevikku, kõnnib vaim pimeduses (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokraatia Ameerikas](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/et/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ Turgot'ile ja Say'le, Quesnay õpilastele, eksisteerib loomulik seadus, mis on s Teine filosoofia leidub autorite seas nagu Rousseau, Robespierre või Kant, kes kehastavad vabariiklikku traditsiooni, mille jaoks üldise tahte suveräänsus on tõeline seaduse allikas. Quesnay kaasaegne Rousseau on anti-füsiokraat. Tema jaoks peab seadusandja korraldama ühiskonda, nagu mehaanik, kes leiutab masina inertsest ainest. ![image](assets/et/007.webp) -> "See, kes julgeb ette võtta rahva rajamise," ütleb Rousseau, "peab tundma end võimelisena muutma, nii öelda, inimloomust, muundama iga üksikisiku, kes iseenesest on täiuslik ja üksildane tervik, osaks suuremast tervikust, millest see üksikisik saab omamoodi oma elu ja olemise." (_Sotsiaalleping_) +> "See, kes julgeb ette võtta rahva rajamise," ütleb Rousseau, "peab tundma end võimelisena muutma, nii öelda, inimloomust, muundama iga üksikisiku, kes iseenesest on täiuslik ja üksildane tervik, osaks suuremast tervikust, millest see üksikisik saab omamoodi oma elu ja olemise." (_[Sotsiaalleping](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Sellest perspektiivist lähtuvalt on seadusandja missioon korraldada, muuta, isegi kaotada omand, kui ta peab seda heaks. Rousseau jaoks ei ole omand loomulik, vaid konventsionaalne, nagu ühiskond ise. Omakorda kehtestab Robespierre põhimõtte, et "Omand on iga kodaniku õigus nautida ja käsutada seadusega talle tagatud varade osa." Loomulikku õigust omandile ei ole; on ainult lõputu arv võimalikke ja juhuslikke korraldusi. @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ Sellest perspektiivist lähtuvalt on seadusandja missioon korraldada, muuta, ise :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Ettehoolitseva seadusandja müüt + Kui keegi avab õpikuid, märkis Bastiat, saab ta teada, et inimkond oleks hukule määratud ilma võimu sekkumiseta: > "Piisab peaaegu suvalise filosoofia, poliitika või ajaloo raamatu avamisest, et näha, kui sügavalt on meie maal juurdunud see idee, mis on sündinud klassikaliste õpingute ja sotsialismi emana, et inimkond on inertne aine, mis saab võimult elu, korralduse, moraali ja rikkuse; — või veel hullem, et inimkond ise kaldub oma allakäigu poole ja ainult seadusandja müstiline käsi peatab sellel nõlval." ([_Seadus_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ Mõni päev enne oma surma Roomas 1850. aastal usaldas Bastiat oma sõbrale Pros :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Võitjate kirjutatud ajalugu + On teada, et ajalugu kirjutavad võitjad. Tähelepanu keskendub sageli võimu vallutamisele, võimul olevate juhtide eludele ja konfliktidele, mis neid nende vastu seavad, kes soovivad nende kohta võtta. ![image](assets/et/010.webp) @@ -214,6 +222,8 @@ Seda teesi käsitletakse ka monumentaalses teoses, mis pärineb aastast 1983: _ :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Sotsialistlik ajaloovaade + Siiski eksisteerib ajaloo suhtes ka teine vaatenurk. See on olnud üsna edukas ja pikka aega nautinud Lääne intellektuaalide ning Globaalse Lõuna esindajate toetust. See on sotsialistlik ja marksistlik ajaloo vaade. ![pilt](assets/et/013.webp) @@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ See analüüs peegeldab arusaamatust ülejääkväärtuse ning majanduselu koost ### Tööstusrevolutsiooni Küsimus -Tegelikult moonutab marksistlik analüüs tööstusrevolutsiooni ajaloolist reaalsust. Ludwig von Mises selgitas seda küsimust oma majandusteaduse traktaadis [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (vaata eriti peatükki pealkirjaga [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) ning samuti sarjas loenguid, mis avaldati pealkirja all: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Samuti väärib lugemist, Antikapitalistlik Mentaliteet [siin](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ja [siin](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Tegelikult moonutab marksistlik analüüs tööstusrevolutsiooni ajaloolist reaalsust. Ludwig von Mises selgitas seda küsimust oma majandusteaduse traktaadis [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (vaata eriti peatükki pealkirjaga [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) ning samuti sarjas loenguid, mis avaldati pealkirja all: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Samuti väärib lugemist, Antikapitalistlik Mentaliteet [siin](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ja [siin](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/et/014.webp) Mises selgitab, et kuigi meie standardite järgi olid tehase töökohad õnnetud, esindasid need tolleaegsete tööliste jaoks parimat võimalikku võimalust. @@ -279,7 +289,9 @@ See radikaalselt detsentraliseeritud Euroopa, mis andis parlamendid, seisused ja :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -_Anatomy of the State_ (tõlgitud prantsuse keelde kui _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence väljaannetes) viimases peatükis pakub Murray Rothbard välja ajaloo teooria. See väga lühike peatükk on pealkirjaga: Ajalugu, võidujooks riigivõimu ja sotsiaalse võimu vahel. Rothbardi sõnul võib ajalugu mõista kui igavest konflikti kahe fundamentaalse põhimõtte vahel: +### Riigivõim versus sotsiaalne võim + +_[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (tõlgitud prantsuse keelde kui _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence väljaannetes) viimases peatükis pakub Murray Rothbard välja ajaloo teooria. See väga lühike peatükk on pealkirjaga: Ajalugu, võidujooks riigivõimu ja sotsiaalse võimu vahel. Rothbardi sõnul võib ajalugu mõista kui igavest konflikti kahe fundamentaalse põhimõtte vahel: ![image](assets/et/017.webp) @@ -315,7 +327,7 @@ Rothbardi sõnul ei ole ajalugu lineaarne protsess, vaid pigem kõikumine sotsia 17. sajandist 19. sajandini oli paljudes Lääne riikides sotsiaalse võimu kiirenemise perioode ja vastavat vabaduse, rahu ja materiaalse heaolu suurenemist. Kuid Rothbard meenutab meile, et 20. sajandit iseloomustas riigi võimu taastõus, millel olid kohutavad tagajärjed: orjuse, sõja ja hävingu suurenemine: > Sellel sajandil seisab inimkond taas silmitsi riigi virulendi valitsemisega; riik, mis on nüüd relvastatud inimese loova jõuga, konfiskeeritud ja oma eesmärkide jaoks pööratud. -> Mis on üldse vaba ühiskond? See on ühiskond ilma monopolita. Oma poliitilise filosoofia teoses _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982) vastab Rothbard: "ühiskond, kus ei ole seaduslikku võimalust sundagressiooniks üksikisiku isiku või vara vastu." Seepärast on tema sõnul poliitiline filosoofia, mis peab määratlema õiglase ühiskonna põhimõtted, taandatav ühele küsimusele: "Kes legitiimselt omab mida?" +> Mis on üldse vaba ühiskond? See on ühiskond ilma monopolita. Oma poliitilise filosoofia teoses _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) vastab Rothbard: "ühiskond, kus ei ole seaduslikku võimalust sundagressiooniks üksikisiku isiku või vara vastu." Seepärast on tema sõnul poliitiline filosoofia, mis peab määratlema õiglase ühiskonna põhimõtted, taandatav ühele küsimusele: "Kes legitiimselt omab mida?" > ![image](assets/et/019.webp) Rothbardi jaoks võib sotsiaalne kord valitseda, kui see on varaõiguste vaba vahetuse lepinguliste protseduuride üldistamise tulemus, privatiseerides kõik majandustegevused ja isegi suveräänsed funktsioonid (keskpank, kohtud) ning pöördudes kaitseagentuuride vahelise konkurentsi poole. @@ -336,6 +348,8 @@ Ja ta lisab: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Ateena demokraatia pärand + Ateena demokraatia kogemus on jätnud püsiva jälje poliitilise mõtte ajaloos ja jätkab tänapäeval demokraatia ja kodanikuosaluse ideaalide inspireerimist. ![image](assets/et/020.webp) @@ -427,6 +441,8 @@ Ainus vahend, mis meil tõele lähenemiseks on, on kriitika ja arutelu. Seega p :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kosmopoliitne impeerium + Rooma impeerium oli tohutu kosmopoliitne üksus. Oma tipphetkel, umbes 117 aastal pKr, oli see tohutu multi-etniline ja mitmekeelne riik: - Läänes ulatus see Suurbritanniast (tänapäeva Inglismaa) Hispaaniani, läbides Galliat (tänapäeva Prantsusmaa) ja Põhja-Aafrikat. @@ -527,6 +543,8 @@ Väites, et seadust ei saa vähendada ainult seadusandliku võimu poolt vastu v :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Allakäik ja kokkuvarisemine + Miks Rooma allakäik ja lõplik langus? Paljud arvavad, et Rooma impeerium varises järsku kokku, barbaaride invasioonide mõjul. Siiski, Rooma impeeriumi kokkuvarisemise põhjused tuleb leida palju varasemast ajast, imperialismist ning majandus- ja rahapoliitilisest dirigismist. @@ -600,6 +618,8 @@ Ja ta lisab: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Individuaalse vabaduse kristlikud juured + Kristlik vabaduse idee arenes välja keskaegses teoloogias, alates pühast Augustinusest 4. sajandil kuni püha Thomas Aquinase juurde 13. sajandil. Mis on see idee? ![image](assets/et/037.webp) @@ -652,6 +672,8 @@ Püha Thomas Aquinase sõnul: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Mõistuse autonoomia + Keskaegadel konkureerivad mõistus ja usk tõe juurdepääsu nimel. Järgides Abélardit ja Albert Suurt, valis Thomas Aquinas 13. sajandil kaitsta mõistuse õigusi ja selle autonoomiat usuga suhtes. ![image](assets/et/040.webp) @@ -690,6 +712,8 @@ Sellest ajast alates valitseks usuline ratsionalism kindlalt müstitsismi üle. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Teoloogilis-poliitiline süsteem + Keskaegses Euroopas päris Kirik ja kristlikud monarhiad poliitilise mudeli Rooma Impeeriumilt, mida ajaloolased nimetavad teoloogilis-poliitiliseks süsteemiks, tähendades süsteemi, kus võim on püha, st poliitiline juht on ka usuline juht. Sellepärast iseloomustavad keskaegseid ühiskondi politiilis-religioosne üksmeelsus. Poliitiline võim rajab oma legitiimsuse, autoriteedi ja ühtsuse kristlikule (või moslemi) usule. See peab end kultuurilise ja religioosse õigeusu kaitsjaks ning kohtleb pariaatidena neid, kes sellest üksmeelsusest kõrvale kaldub. Selles kontekstis, isegi kui teatud tolerants võidi lubada neile, kes eraldusid ühisest kultuurilisest visioonist (nagu juudid), ei tunnustatud neile pluralismi õigust. Alles keskaja lõpus, Ameerika vallutamisega, muutus tsiviilvabaduste probleem Kiriku jaoks kriitiliseks ning nägi esimese õigusfilosoofia tekkimist, mis kinnitas ja kaitses individuaalseid vabadusi, legitimeeris pluralismi ja mõistis riikliku sunduse hukka. @@ -728,6 +752,8 @@ Kiriku teokraatlik kiusatus põrkub samuti kokku "jumaliku õiguse" teooriaga. K :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Inimene loodud Jumala näo järgi + Vanas mõttemaailmas allutati inimene jumalikule kosmosele, see tähendab täiuslikule universumile, mille osa ta vaid oli. Monoteism seevastu väidab inimese lõpmatult ülekaalukamat väärtust looduse üle, kuna inimene on loodud Jumala näo järgi. See oluline punkt on tõelise eetilise revolutsiooni alguseks. Piibel kinnitab iga inimolendi püha ja lõpmatut väärtust. Seetõttu muudab piibellik eetika meie suhet kurjusega. See toob kaasa terava ja enneolematu tundlikkuse inimkannatuste suhtes. Seega julgustab see meid pidama ebanormaalseks ja talumatuks kurjust, mida inimkond seni oli täiesti talutavaks pidanud, eriti kurjust, mis tehakse teistele, nõrkadele, süütutele. @@ -766,6 +792,8 @@ Inimkonna idee areneb. Tõepoolest jõuti arusaamisele, et on olemas ainult üks :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kristlus ja vaba majandus + Oleme näinud, et kristlus paneb inimestele moraalse kohustuse töötada maailma paremaks muutmise nimel. Jumal soovib, et inimene oleks õnnelik, kuid ei taha tema heaolu tema eest saavutada. Seega on kristlase ülesanne võidelda moraalse kurjuse vastu, armastada oma ligimest, aidata ohvreid, lühidalt öeldes töötada õiglasema ja inimlikuma maailma nimel. Kas kapitalism, st vaba majandus, mis põhineb eraomandil ja lepinguvabadusel, on kooskõlas kristliku kohustusega? Osa vastusest peitub faktis, et kapitalism sai alguse religioosses kontekstis, palju enne protestantlikku reformatsiooni. Teine osa vastusest seisneb fakti täheldamises, et kapitalism on parim vahend üksikisikute materiaalse ja moraalse seisundi parandamiseks. Ainult vaba majandus, mis põhineb omandiõigustel ja vabatahtlikul koostööl, suudab inimesi jätkusuutlikult vaesusest välja tõsta. @@ -831,6 +859,8 @@ Pealegi, kui kaks erinevat valuutat naudivad seaduslikku maksevahendit, siis age :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Ususõjad ja valgustusajastu + Renessansist alates oli Euroopat laastamas ususõjad. Tolerantsus sai seega Valgustusajastu üheks suureks võitluseks. ![image](assets/et/050.webp) @@ -867,7 +897,7 @@ _Kümnendas Kirjas_, "Kaubandusest", kirjeldab Voltaire prantslaste mõtteviisi ### Tõde Nõuab Vabadust -Prantsusmaal ei puudunud suured mõistused. See on vähe teada, kuid Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Laulne'i parun oli esmajoones juhtiv mõtleja enne kui sai Louis XVI all finantsjuhiks. Ta oli poliitilise ökonoomia meistriteose, _Mõtisklused Rikkuse Kujunemise ja Jaotumise Üle_ (1766), autor, mis eelnes Adam Smithi _Rahvaste Rikkusele_ (1776). +Prantsusmaal ei puudunud suured mõistused. See on vähe teada, kuid Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Laulne'i parun oli esmajoones juhtiv mõtleja enne kui sai Louis XVI all finantsjuhiks. Ta oli poliitilise ökonoomia meistriteose, _Mõtisklused Rikkuse Kujunemise ja Jaotumise Üle_ (1766), autor, mis eelnes Adam Smithi _[Rahvaste Rikkusele](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776). ![image](assets/et/052.webp) Tema varased kirjutised peegeldavad tema pühendumust valgustusfilosoofiale. 1754. aastal avaldas ta oma _Kirjad Tsiviiltolerantsusest_ ja 1757. aastal mitu artiklit, mis kirjutatud _Entsüklopeedia_ jaoks Diderot' ja d'Alembert'i poolt. @@ -885,6 +915,8 @@ Teisisõnu, sallivus ei tähenda vaenulikkust religiooni vastu. See tähendab, e :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Majandusliberalismi juured + Majandusliberalism on sageli seostatud anglosaksi traditsiooniga, mis pärineb Adam Smithilt, erinevalt "poliitilisest liberalismist", mida väidetakse pärinevat mandri Euroopa valgustusajastust, eriti Prantsusmaalt. See vaade on vale. ![image](assets/et/053.webp) @@ -949,6 +981,8 @@ Lühidalt, kui kõik saavad vabalt järgida oma eraõiguslikku huvi loodusõigus :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Kolm sündmust, mis muutsid ajalugu + 1776 on aasta, mis jääb sageli ajalooõpikutes märkamatuks. Kuid kolmes riigis, Prantsusmaal, Šotimaal ja Põhja-Ameerikas, jätavad mitmed sündmused vabaduse ajaloos kustutamatu jälje. ### Turgoti Häbistamine @@ -989,7 +1023,7 @@ See on ka filosoofia traktaat, kuna see demonstreerib, kuidas vaba ja vabatahtli ### Vabaduse manifest Ameerikas -1776. aastal avaldas inglise mees nimega Thomas Paine Ameerikas terava pamfleti, milles kritiseeris Inglise monarhiat ja pooldas Ameerika kolonistide iseseisvust: _Common Sense_. +1776. aastal avaldas inglise mees nimega Thomas Paine Ameerikas terava pamfleti, milles kritiseeris Inglise monarhiat ja pooldas Ameerika kolonistide iseseisvust: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/et/059.webp) @@ -1049,6 +1083,8 @@ See spontaanse korra idee saab Friedrich Hayeki töö võtmekontseptsiooniks, ke :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekulariseerumine ja modernne ühiskond + Suur uudsus sellel modernsel perioodil Lääne ajaloos on ühiskonna esilekerkimine, mis korraldab end väljaspool religioosset sõltuvust. See ei tähenda religioosse uskumuse kadumist ega Jumala surma. Kuid Jumalast saab eraasi, mis ei segune enam poliitiliste asjadega. Religioon ei kao, kuid selle juhtiv roll troonitakse. See muutub individuaalsete uskumuste süsteemiks. Lääne maailma sekulariseerumine ei toimunud üleöö. Sellele valmistasid ette ideed. Nagu sageli, on filosoofia suurte kultuurimuutuste eesliinil. @@ -1130,7 +1166,7 @@ Ameerikas ei olnud majanduslikku dirigismi ega rahanduslikku pankrotti nagu Assi Rousseau ja Robespierre'iga tahtsid prantslased uskuda, et Rahvas või üldine tahe omab piiramatut võimu ja õigustab kõike. Asjaolust, et rahvas valitses, järeldati, et neil on kõik õigused. Selgelt oli vastuolu suurte revolutsioonipõhimõtete ja nende võidule viimiseks kasutatud vahendite vahel. -See on ka Friedrich Hayeki raamatu _Vabaduse Konstitutsioon_ mõtte mõte: +See on ka Friedrich Hayeki raamatu _[Vabaduse Konstitutsioon](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ mõtte mõte: > Otsustav tegur, mis muutis revolutsiooni pingutused individuaalse vabaduse edendamisel asjatuks, oli illusioon, et kuna kogu võim oli antud rahvale, oli kõik ettevaatusabinõud selle võimu kuritarvitamise vastu muutunud tarbetuks. @@ -1144,20 +1180,22 @@ See on ka Friedrich Hayeki raamatu _Vabaduse Konstitutsioon_ mõtte mõte: :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antiikaja vabadus versus modernne vabadus + Benjamin Constanti sõnul ei saa vabadust meie modernsetes ühiskondades enam mõista nagu antiikühiskondades otsest osalust linna asjades. ![image](assets/et/070.webp) ### Vabadus Eraelus Muistsel ajal oli üksikisik suveräänne avalikes asjades, kuid orjastatud kõigis oma eraelulistest suhetest. Individuaalse vabaduse ohverdamine kompenseeriti poliitiliste õiguste kasutamisega: õigus otse osaleda suveräänsuse erinevates osades, arutleda avalikul väljakul, hääletada seaduste üle, langetada otsuseid, hinnata ja kohtu mõista ametnike üle. See on poliitiline ja kollektiivne vabadus: -Vabadus, mida antiikajal hinnati, seisnes aktiivses ja pidevas osalemises kollektiivses võimus. Meie vabadus seevastu peab seisnema rahulikus eraisikliku sõltumatuse nautimises; sellest järeldub, et peame olema palju rohkem kinnitatud oma individuaalse sõltumatuse külge kui antiikajal. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +Vabadus, mida antiikajal hinnati, seisnes aktiivses ja pidevas osalemises kollektiivses võimus. Meie vabadus seevastu peab seisnema rahulikus eraisikliku sõltumatuse nautimises; sellest järeldub, et peame olema palju rohkem kinnitatud oma individuaalse sõltumatuse külge kui antiikajal. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/et/071.webp) Kaasaegne vabadus on tsiviilvabadus, mis hõlmab majandusvabadust ja põhineb privaatsusõigusel. See on õigus mitte alluda ühelegi meelevaldsusele, õigus väljendusele, kogunemisele, liikumisele, usule ja tööstusele. Vabadust ei ole ilma võimaluseta valida oma elustiili ja väärtusi, seega ei ole vabadust ilma võimaluseta kogukonnast taanduda ja järelikult ei ole vabadust ilma riigi piiranguteta, mis lubavad selle eraelu ruumi olemasolu. See on vabadus, mis vastab sellele, mida ameeriklased nimetavad kodanikuõigusteks. See vabaduse definitsioon leidub John Stuart Millis: -> Ainus vabadus, mis väärivad seda nime, on meie enda hüve tagaajamine meie enda viisil, nii kaua kui me ei ürita teistelt nende oma ära võtta või takistada nende püüdlusi seda saavutada. (...) Inimkond võidab rohkem, lastes igal inimesel elada nii, nagu nad ise sobivaks peavad, kui sundides neid elama nii, nagu teistele tundub hea. (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> Ainus vabadus, mis väärivad seda nime, on meie enda hüve tagaajamine meie enda viisil, nii kaua kui me ei ürita teistelt nende oma ära võtta või takistada nende püüdlusi seda saavutada. (...) Inimkond võidab rohkem, lastes igal inimesel elada nii, nagu nad ise sobivaks peavad, kui sundides neid elama nii, nagu teistele tundub hea. (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/et/072.webp) @@ -1193,6 +1231,8 @@ Teisisõnu, vabas ühiskonnas on vajalik kehtestada range piir avaliku ja eraelu :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville ja demokraatlik individualism + Alexis de Tocqueville oli demokraatia terav vaatleja ja demokraatliku individualismi kriitik. ![image](assets/et/074.webp) @@ -1267,6 +1307,8 @@ Vaadake maakera. Millised on õnnelikumad, moraalsemad ja rahumeelsemad rahvad? :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19. sajandi kriitika + 19. sajandil tekkis kapitalismi, eriti marksistliku kriitika, kriitika. ![image](assets/et/078.webp) @@ -1299,6 +1341,8 @@ Polüitiline revolutsioon on seega illusioon, tema sõnul, niikaua kui see ei k :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Austria koolkonna vastus + Austria Majanduskool, mille asutas Carl Menger 19. sajandi lõpus, oli Karl Marx'i teooriatele algusest peale vastu. ![image](assets/et/081.webp) @@ -1352,7 +1396,7 @@ Marksistid usuvad, et sotsialism, majandussüsteem, milles tootmisvahendid kuulu ![image](assets/et/085.webp) -Juba 1922. aastal oma raamatus _Sotsialism_ näitas Ludwig von Mises, et sotsialism viiks laialdaste puudusteni, kuna keskplaneerijad ei suudaks ilma turu poolt pakutava hinnasüsteemita teha täpseid majandusarvutusi. +Juba 1922. aastal oma raamatus _[Sotsialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ näitas Ludwig von Mises, et sotsialism viiks laialdaste puudusteni, kuna keskplaneerijad ei suudaks ilma turu poolt pakutava hinnasüsteemita teha täpseid majandusarvutusi. ## Tee Orjusesse @@ -1360,7 +1404,9 @@ Juba 1922. aastal oma raamatus _Sotsialism_ näitas Ludwig von Mises, et sotsial :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Valitsussekkumise suurenemisest Lääne demokraatiate majandustes häirituna kirjutas Hayek _Tee Orjusesse_ kui filosoofilise kriitika kollektivismi vastu, olgu see siis parem- või vasakpoolne. Tänu _Reader’s Digest_'ile mitme miljoni eksemplari tiraažis avaldatud raamat on suuresti kaasa aidanud Hayeki kuulsusele Ameerika Ühendriikides. +### Hayeki hoiatus kollektivismi vastu + +Valitsussekkumise suurenemisest Lääne demokraatiate majandustes häirituna kirjutas Hayek _[Tee Orjusesse](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ kui filosoofilise kriitika kollektivismi vastu, olgu see siis parem- või vasakpoolne. Tänu _Reader’s Digest_'ile mitme miljoni eksemplari tiraažis avaldatud raamat on suuresti kaasa aidanud Hayeki kuulsusele Ameerika Ühendriikides. ![image](assets/et/086.webp) @@ -1403,13 +1449,15 @@ Kokkuvõttes kutsub Hayek oma kaasaegseid pöörama selga "hullusele" ja "kaasae :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Keynesi revolutsioon + Kapitalismi süüdistatakse tihti käskluses: "me peame alati rohkem tootma," või valemis: "tarbimine on hea majanduskasvuks." Siiski, need ideed ei pärine traditsioonilisest kapitalismist, vaid Keynesianismist, mis on domineerinud majandusteaduse valdkonnas ja poliitilises klassis alates 1930ndatest. ![image](assets/et/088.webp) ### 1929. aasta kriisi analüüs -1936. aastal avaldatud raamat, mille autoriks on John Maynard Keynes: _Üldteooria tööhõive, intressi ja raha kohta_, pühkis kõik enda teelt. Küsitledes Suure Depressiooni põhjuseid ja viise sellest väljumiseks, kirjeldab ta uut majandusparadigmat, mis muudaks majandusteadlaste ja poliitikute põlvkondi. +1936. aastal avaldatud raamat, mille autoriks on John Maynard Keynes: _[Üldteooria tööhõive, intressi ja raha kohta](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, pühkis kõik enda teelt. Küsitledes Suure Depressiooni põhjuseid ja viise sellest väljumiseks, kirjeldab ta uut majandusparadigmat, mis muudaks majandusteadlaste ja poliitikute põlvkondi. ![image](assets/et/089.webp) @@ -1447,7 +1495,7 @@ See raamat sisaldab võtmepeatükki pealkirjaga: "Terve raha või totalitaarne r ![image](assets/et/094.webp) -_Teoses "Lääne rahanduslik patt"_ 1971. aastal kirjutab Rueff: +_Teoses "[Lääne rahanduslik patt](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)"_ 1971. aastal kirjutab Rueff: > See on eelarvepuudujäägi kaudu, et inimesed kaotavad oma vabaduse. @@ -1464,6 +1512,8 @@ Ta lisab: "Inflatsioon on kulutuste subsideerimine, mis ei too midagi sisse raha :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Raha ja tsivilisatsioon + Raha on vahend, mis on võimaldanud inimestel liikuda kaupade vahetamisest kaugemale, säästa ja koordineerida suurel määral turu kaudu. See on teinud võimalikuks tööjõu spetsialiseerumise, võrdlevad eelised, kaubandusest saadavad kasud, majandusliku arvestuse. Ilma rahata pole kaasaegset tsivilisatsiooni. ### Kuld kui globaalne standard @@ -1507,7 +1557,7 @@ Veebruaris 1965, televisioonis üle kantud pressikonverentsil, oli kindral de Ga ### Riigimonopoolita rahaturg on võimalik -1976. aastal pakkus Hayek välja alternatiivi riigi monopolile valuuta loomisel: valuutade vaheline konkurents. Oma raamatus _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Raha denatsionaliseerimine_) kujutas ta ette riigimonopoolita rahaturgu, kus eksisteeriks mitu eraõiguslikku valuutat. Erinevate valuutade loomine ja haldamine eraõiguslike üksuste poolt võimaldaks inimestel valida kõige stabiilsema ja usaldusväärsema valuuta, ergutades seeläbi konkurentsi ja distsipliini emiteerijate seas. +1976. aastal pakkus Hayek välja alternatiivi riigi monopolile valuuta loomisel: valuutade vaheline konkurents. Oma raamatus _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Raha denatsionaliseerimine](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) kujutas ta ette riigimonopoolita rahaturgu, kus eksisteeriks mitu eraõiguslikku valuutat. Erinevate valuutade loomine ja haldamine eraõiguslike üksuste poolt võimaldaks inimestel valida kõige stabiilsema ja usaldusväärsema valuuta, ergutades seeläbi konkurentsi ja distsipliini emiteerijate seas. ![image](assets/et/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/fa.md b/courses/phi101/fa.md index dd736d464d1..8e568428c60 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/fa.md +++ b/courses/phi101/fa.md @@ -27,6 +27,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### مقدمه‌ای بر دوره + به PHI101 خوش آمدید! @@ -80,10 +82,12 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### چرا تاریخ آزادی را مطالعه کنیم؟ + چرا این دوره را این‌گونه عنوان کنیم: تاریخ آزادی؟ زیرا ما نیاز داریم تا رابطه بین ایده‌ها و رویدادها را درک کنیم، تا بتوانیم دوران خود را بهتر قضاوت کرده و با بصیرت عمل کنیم. در گذشته است که ما Elements را برای درک بهتر از آزادی و دلایلی که باید آن را گرامی بداریم، پیدا می‌کنیم. -> وقتی که گذشته دیگر آینده را روشن نمی‌کند، روح در تاریکی گام برمی‌دارد (الکسی دو توکویل - _دموکراسی در آمریکا_.) +> وقتی که گذشته دیگر آینده را روشن نمی‌کند، روح در تاریکی گام برمی‌دارد (الکسی دو توکویل - _[دموکراسی در آمریکا](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/fa/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +163,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/fa/007.webp) -> «کسی که جرات می‌کند به تأسیس یک ملت بپردازد»، روسو می‌گوید، «باید احساس کند که قادر است، به‌نوعی، طبیعت انسانی را تغییر دهد، هر فردی را که به‌تنهایی یک کل کامل و مستقل است، به بخشی از یک کل بزرگ‌تر تبدیل کند که این فرد، به‌نوعی، زندگی و وجود خود را از آن دریافت می‌کند.» (قرارداد اجتماعی) +> «کسی که جرات می‌کند به تأسیس یک ملت بپردازد»، روسو می‌گوید، «باید احساس کند که قادر است، به‌نوعی، طبیعت انسانی را تغییر دهد، هر فردی را که به‌تنهایی یک کل کامل و مستقل است، به بخشی از یک کل بزرگ‌تر تبدیل کند که این فرد، به‌نوعی، زندگی و وجود خود را از آن دریافت می‌کند.» ([قرارداد اجتماعی](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)) از این منظر، مأموریت قانون‌گذار سازمان‌دهی، تغییر، حتی لغو مالکیت است اگر آن را خوب بداند. برای روسو، مالکیت طبیعی نیست بلکه قراردادی است، مانند خود جامعه. به نوبه خود، روبسپیر اصل را برقرار می‌کند که "مالکیت حق هر شهروند است برای لذت بردن و تصرف در بخشی از اموال که توسط قانون برای او تضمین شده است." هیچ حق طبیعی برای مالکیت وجود ندارد؛ تنها تعداد نامحدودی از ترتیبات ممکن و مشروط وجود دارد. @@ -172,6 +176,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### افسانه قانون‌گذار مشیت‌آمیز + هنگامی که کسی کتاب‌های درسی را باز می‌کند، بستیات خاطرنشان کرد، می‌آموزد که بشریت بدون مداخله قدرت به نیستی محکوم خواهد شد: @@ -254,6 +260,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### تاریخی که فاتحان می‌نویسند + مشهور است که تاریخ را فاتحان می‌نویسند. توجه اغلب بر تسخیر قدرت، بر زندگی رهبران در قدرت و بر درگیری‌هایی که آن‌ها را در برابر کسانی که می‌خواهند جای آن‌ها را بگیرند، متمرکز می‌شود. @@ -316,6 +324,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### دیدگاه سوسیالیستی نسبت به تاریخ + دیدگاه دیگری نسبت به تاریخ وجود دارد، با این حال. این دیدگاه بسیار موفق بوده و مدت‌ها از حمایت روشنفکران غربی و نمایندگان جنوب جهانی برخوردار بوده است. این دیدگاه سوسیالیستی و مارکسیستی نسبت به تاریخ است. ![image](assets/fa/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +354,7 @@ objectives: ### انقلاب صنعتی در سوال -در واقع، تحلیل مارکسیستی واقعیت تاریخی انقلاب صنعتی را تحریف می‌کند. لودویگ فون میزس این مسئله را در رساله اقتصادی خود [_کنش انسانی_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (به ویژه فصل [تفسیر عمومی از انقلاب صنعتی](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2) را ببینید) و همچنین در مجموعه‌ای از سخنرانی‌ها که تحت عنوان: [_سیاست اقتصادی: افکاری برای امروز و فردا_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) منتشر شده‌اند، روشن کرده است. (همچنین ارزش خواندن دارد، ذهنیت ضدسرمایه‌داری [اینجا](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) و [اینجا](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +در واقع، تحلیل مارکسیستی واقعیت تاریخی انقلاب صنعتی را تحریف می‌کند. لودویگ فون میزس این مسئله را در رساله اقتصادی خود [_کنش انسانی_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (به ویژه فصل [تفسیر عمومی از انقلاب صنعتی](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2) را ببینید) و همچنین در مجموعه‌ای از سخنرانی‌ها که تحت عنوان: [_سیاست اقتصادی: افکاری برای امروز و فردا_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) منتشر شده‌اند، روشن کرده است. (همچنین ارزش خواندن دارد، ذهنیت ضدسرمایه‌داری [اینجا](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) و [اینجا](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/fa/014.webp) @@ -415,7 +425,9 @@ objectives: :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -در فصل آخر کتاب _Anatomy of the State_ (که به فرانسوی به عنوان _L’anatomie de l’Etat_ توسط انتشارات Résurgence ترجمه شده است)، موری روتبارد نظریه‌ای از تاریخ را پیشنهاد می‌کند. این فصل بسیار کوتاه با عنوان: تاریخ، مسابقه‌ای بین قدرت دولت و قدرت اجتماعی نام‌گذاری شده است. به گفته روتبارد، تاریخ را می‌توان به عنوان یک درگیری همیشگی بین دو اصل بنیادی درک کرد: +### قدرت دولت در برابر قدرت اجتماعی + +در فصل آخر کتاب _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (که به فرانسوی به عنوان _L’anatomie de l’Etat_ توسط انتشارات Résurgence ترجمه شده است)، موری روتبارد نظریه‌ای از تاریخ را پیشنهاد می‌کند. این فصل بسیار کوتاه با عنوان: تاریخ، مسابقه‌ای بین قدرت دولت و قدرت اجتماعی نام‌گذاری شده است. به گفته روتبارد، تاریخ را می‌توان به عنوان یک درگیری همیشگی بین دو اصل بنیادی درک کرد: ![image](assets/fa/017.webp) @@ -471,7 +483,7 @@ objectives: > در طول این قرن، نژاد بشر بار دیگر با سلطه‌ی شدید دولت مواجه است؛ دولتی که اکنون به قدرت خلاقه‌ی انسان مسلح شده و آن را برای اهداف خود مصادره و منحرف کرده است. -> یک جامعه آزاد، در نهایت چیست؟ جامعه‌ای بدون انحصار. در اثر فلسفه سیاسی خود، _اخلاق آزادی_ (۱۹۸۲)، روتبارد پاسخ می‌دهد: "جامعه‌ای که در آن هیچ امکان قانونی برای تجاوز اجباری علیه شخص یا مالکیت فرد وجود ندارد." به همین دلیل است که به گفته او، فلسفه سیاسی که باید اصول یک جامعه عادلانه را تعریف کند، به یک سوال واحد خلاصه می‌شود: "چه کسی به طور قانونی مالک چه چیزی است؟" +> یک جامعه آزاد، در نهایت چیست؟ جامعه‌ای بدون انحصار. در اثر فلسفه سیاسی خود، _[اخلاق آزادی](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (۱۹۸۲)، روتبارد پاسخ می‌دهد: "جامعه‌ای که در آن هیچ امکان قانونی برای تجاوز اجباری علیه شخص یا مالکیت فرد وجود ندارد." به همین دلیل است که به گفته او، فلسفه سیاسی که باید اصول یک جامعه عادلانه را تعریف کند، به یک سوال واحد خلاصه می‌شود: "چه کسی به طور قانونی مالک چه چیزی است؟" > ![تصویر](assets/fa/019.webp) برای روتبارد، نظم اجتماعی می‌تواند حاکم شود اگر محصول تعمیم رویه‌های قراردادی برای Exchange آزاد حقوق مالکیت باشد، با خصوصی‌سازی تمام فعالیت‌های اقتصادی و حتی وظایف حاکمیتی (بانک مرکزی، دادگاه‌ها) و با توسل به رقابت میان آژانس‌های حفاظتی. @@ -499,6 +511,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### میراث دموکراسی آتنی + تجربه دموکراسی آتنی تأثیری ماندگار بر تاریخ اندیشه سیاسی گذاشته و همچنان به الهام‌بخشی ایده‌آل‌های دموکراسی و مشارکت شهروندان در دنیای امروز ادامه می‌دهد. @@ -639,6 +653,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### یک امپراتوری جهان‌وطن + امپراتوری روم یک نهاد وسیع و چندفرهنگی بود. در اوج خود، حدود سال ۱۱۷ میلادی، یک دولت عظیم چندقومیتی و چندزبانه بود: @@ -793,6 +809,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### افول و فروپاشی + چرا روم افول کرد و در نهایت سقوط کرد؟ بسیاری دوست دارند فکر کنند که امپراتوری روم به طور ناگهانی، تحت تأثیر تهاجمات بربرها فروپاشید. با این حال، علل فروپاشی امپراتوری روم را باید بسیار زودتر، در امپریالیسم و کنترل اقتصادی و پولی جستجو کرد. @@ -905,6 +923,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### ریشه‌های مسیحی آزادی فردی + ایده مسیحی آزادی در الهیات قرون وسطی از سنت آگوستین در قرن چهارم تا سنت توماس آکویناس در قرن سیزدهم توسعه یافت. این ایده چیست؟ @@ -982,6 +1002,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### استقلال عقل + در قرون وسطی، عقل و ایمان برای دسترسی به حقیقت رقابت می‌کنند. پس از آبلارد و آلبرت کبیر، توماس آکویناس در قرن سیزدهم تصمیم گرفت از حقوق عقل و استقلال آن در رابطه با ایمان دفاع کند. @@ -1043,6 +1065,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### سیستم تئولوژیکو-سیاسی + در قرون وسطی، کلیسا و سلطنت‌های مسیحی یک مدل سیاسی را از امپراتوری روم به ارث بردند که تاریخ‌نگاران آن را سیستم تئولوژیکو-سیاسی می‌نامند، به معنای سیستمی که در آن قدرت مقدس است، یعنی جایی که رهبر سیاسی همچنین یک رهبر مذهبی است. @@ -1101,6 +1125,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### انسان آفریده‌شده به تصویر خدا + اندیشه باستانی انسان را به یک کیهان الهی، یعنی به یک جهان کامل که او تنها بخشی از آن بود، تابع می‌کرد. از سوی دیگر، یکتاپرستی ارزش بی‌نهایت برتر انسان نسبت به طبیعت را تأیید می‌کند، تا جایی که انسان به تصویر خدا آفریده شده است. این نکته مهم در اصل یک انقلاب اخلاقی واقعی است. کتاب مقدس ارزش مقدس و بی‌نهایت هر انسان را تأیید می‌کند. @@ -1157,6 +1183,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### مسیحیت و اقتصاد آزاد + ما دیده‌ایم که مسیحیت وظیفه اخلاقی بر مردم تحمیل می‌کند تا برای بهبود جهان تلاش کنند. خدا می‌خواهد انسان خوشحال باشد اما نمی‌خواهد خوبی او را به جای او به دست آورد. بنابراین بر عهده مسیحی است که با شر اخلاقی مبارزه کند، همسایه خود را دوست بدارد، به قربانیان کمک کند، به طور خلاصه، برای جهانی عادلانه‌تر و انسانی‌تر کار کند. آیا سرمایه‌داری، یعنی اقتصاد آزاد مبتنی بر مالکیت خصوصی و آزادی قراردادها، با وظیفه مسیحی سازگار است؟ @@ -1251,6 +1279,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### جنگ‌های مذهبی و روشنگری + از دوران رنسانس، اروپا دچار جنگ‌های مذهبی شد. بنابراین، تساهل به یکی از نبردهای بزرگ عصر روشنگری تبدیل شد. ![image](assets/fa/050.webp) @@ -1308,7 +1338,7 @@ objectives: ### حقیقت نیازمند آزادی است -با این حال، فرانسه از ذهن‌های بزرگ بی‌بهره نبود. کمتر کسی می‌داند که آن رابرت ژاک تورگو، بارون دولون، پیش از آنکه به عنوان کنترل‌کننده کل مالیه تحت لوئی شانزدهم خدمت کند، در درجه اول یک متفکر برجسته بود. او نویسنده یک رساله استادانه در مورد اقتصاد سیاسی به نام _تأملاتی در مورد تشکیل و توزیع ثروت_ (۱۷۶۶) بود که پیش از _ثروت ملل_ اثر آدام اسمیت (۱۷۷۶) نوشته شده است. +با این حال، فرانسه از ذهن‌های بزرگ بی‌بهره نبود. کمتر کسی می‌داند که آن رابرت ژاک تورگو، بارون دولون، پیش از آنکه به عنوان کنترل‌کننده کل مالیه تحت لوئی شانزدهم خدمت کند، در درجه اول یک متفکر برجسته بود. او نویسنده یک رساله استادانه در مورد اقتصاد سیاسی به نام _تأملاتی در مورد تشکیل و توزیع ثروت_ (۱۷۶۶) بود که پیش از _[ثروت ملل](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ اثر آدام اسمیت (۱۷۷۶) نوشته شده است. ![image](assets/fa/052.webp) @@ -1337,6 +1367,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### خاستگاه‌های لیبرالیسم اقتصادی + لیبرالیسم اقتصادی اغلب با سنت آنگلوساکسون مرتبط است که از آدام اسمیت نشأت می‌گیرد و در مقابل آن "لیبرالیسم سیاسی" قرار دارد که گفته می‌شود از روشنگری قاره‌ای، به‌ویژه در فرانسه، سرچشمه می‌گیرد. این دیدگاه نادرست است. @@ -1434,6 +1466,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### سه رویدادی که تاریخ را تغییر دادند + ۱۷۷۶ سالی است که اغلب در کتاب‌های تاریخ نادیده گرفته می‌شود. اما در سه کشور، فرانسه، اسکاتلند و آمریکای شمالی، چندین رویداد اثری ماندگار بر تاریخ آزادی خواهند گذاشت. @@ -1493,7 +1527,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ ### مانیفست آزادی در آمریکا -در سال 1776، یک انگلیسی به نام توماس پین در آمریکا یک جزوه تند و تیز منتشر کرد که به انتقاد از سلطنت انگلیس می‌پرداخت و از استقلال مستعمره‌نشینان آمریکایی حمایت می‌کرد: _عقل سلیم_. +در سال 1776، یک انگلیسی به نام توماس پین در آمریکا یک جزوه تند و تیز منتشر کرد که به انتقاد از سلطنت انگلیس می‌پرداخت و از استقلال مستعمره‌نشینان آمریکایی حمایت می‌کرد: _[عقل سلیم](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/fa/059.webp) @@ -1582,6 +1616,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### سکولاریزاسیون و جامعه مدرن + تازگی بزرگ این دوره مدرن در تاریخ غرب ظهور جامعه‌ای است که خود را خارج از وابستگی دینی سازماندهی می‌کند. این به معنای ناپدید شدن اعتقاد دینی یا مرگ خدا نیست. بلکه خدا به یک موضوع خصوصی تبدیل می‌شود و دیگر با امور سیاسی مخلوط نمی‌شود. دینی ناپدید نمی‌شود بلکه نقش راهنمایی آن از بین می‌رود. این به یک سیستم اعتقادات فردی تبدیل می‌شود. @@ -1706,7 +1742,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ با روسو و روبسپیر، فرانسوی‌ها می‌خواستند باور کنند که ملت یا اراده عمومی قدرت نامحدودی دارد و همه چیز را توجیه می‌کند. از این واقعیت که مردم حکومت می‌کردند، نتیجه گرفته شد که آن‌ها همه حقوق را دارند. به وضوح تناقضی بین اصول بزرگ انقلاب و وسایلی که برای پیروزی آن‌ها به کار گرفته شد، وجود داشت. -این، علاوه بر این، معنای اظهارنظر فریدریش هایک در کتابش _قانون اساسی آزادی_ است: +این، علاوه بر این، معنای اظهارنظر فریدریش هایک در کتابش _[قانون اساسی آزادی](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ است: > عامل تعیین‌کننده‌ای که تلاش‌های انقلاب را برای ترویج آزادی فردی بی‌ثمر کرد، این بود که این توهم را ایجاد کرد که تا جایی که تمام قدرت به مردم واگذار شده بود، تمام احتیاطات در برابر سوءاستفاده از این قدرت غیرضروری شده بود. @@ -1725,6 +1761,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### آزادی باستانیان در برابر آزادی مدرن‌ها + به گفته بنجامین کنستانت، آزادی در جوامع مدرن ما دیگر نمی‌تواند به شیوه جوامع باستان به عنوان مشارکت مستقیم در امور شهر درک شود. @@ -1737,7 +1775,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ در زمان‌های باستان، فرد در امور عمومی حاکم بود اما در تمامی روابط خصوصی خود به بردگی گرفته می‌شد. فداکاری آزادی فردی با استفاده از حقوق سیاسی جبران می‌شد: حق اعمال مستقیم بخش‌های مختلف حاکمیت، مشورت در میدان عمومی، رأی‌گیری درباره قوانین، صدور احکام، ارزیابی و قضاوت مقامات. این یک آزادی سیاسی و جمعی است: -> آزادی باستانیان شامل مشارکت فعال و مداوم در قدرت جمعی بود. آزادی ما، از سوی دیگر، باید شامل لذت بردن آرام از استقلال خصوصی باشد؛ بنابراین، ما باید بسیار بیشتر از باستانیان به استقلال فردی خود وابسته باشیم. (_درباره آزادی باستانیان در مقایسه با آزادی مدرن‌ها_ (1819)) +> آزادی باستانیان شامل مشارکت فعال و مداوم در قدرت جمعی بود. آزادی ما، از سوی دیگر، باید شامل لذت بردن آرام از استقلال خصوصی باشد؛ بنابراین، ما باید بسیار بیشتر از باستانیان به استقلال فردی خود وابسته باشیم. (_[درباره آزادی باستانیان در مقایسه با آزادی مدرن‌ها](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/fa/071.webp) @@ -1748,7 +1786,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ این تعریف آزادی در آثار جان استوارت میل یافت می‌شود: -> تنها آزادی که شایستهٔ این نام است، آزادی در پیگیری خیر خود به شیوهٔ خودمان است، تا زمانی که تلاش نکنیم دیگران را از خیرشان محروم کنیم یا تلاش‌هایشان برای دستیابی به آن را مختل کنیم. (...) بشریت با اجازه دادن به هر فرد برای زندگی به شیوه‌ای که خود مناسب می‌داند، بیشتر سود می‌برد تا با مجبور کردن آن‌ها به زندگی به شیوه‌ای که به نظر دیگران خوب است. (_درباره آزادی_، ۱۸۵۹) +> تنها آزادی که شایستهٔ این نام است، آزادی در پیگیری خیر خود به شیوهٔ خودمان است، تا زمانی که تلاش نکنیم دیگران را از خیرشان محروم کنیم یا تلاش‌هایشان برای دستیابی به آن را مختل کنیم. (...) بشریت با اجازه دادن به هر فرد برای زندگی به شیوه‌ای که خود مناسب می‌داند، بیشتر سود می‌برد تا با مجبور کردن آن‌ها به زندگی به شیوه‌ای که به نظر دیگران خوب است. (_[درباره آزادی](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_، ۱۸۵۹) ![image](assets/fa/072.webp) @@ -1799,6 +1837,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### توکویل و فردگرایی دموکراتیک + الکسی دو توکویل ناظر تیزبین دموکراسی و منتقد فردگرایی دموکراتیک بود. @@ -1910,6 +1950,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### نقد قرن نوزدهم + این در طول قرن 19 بود که نقد سرمایه‌داری، و به‌ویژه نقد مارکسیستی، پدیدار شد. @@ -1956,6 +1998,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### پاسخ مکتب اتریشی + مکتب اقتصاد اتریشی، که توسط کارل منگر در اواخر قرن نوزدهم تأسیس شد، از همان ابتدا با نظریات کارل مارکس مخالفت کرد. @@ -2038,7 +2082,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ ![image](assets/fa/085.webp) -از سال ۱۹۲۲، لودویگ فن میزس در کتاب خود _سوسیالیسم_ نشان داد که سوسیالیسم به کمبودهای گسترده‌ای منجر خواهد شد، زیرا برنامه‌ریزان مرکزی بدون سیستم قیمتی که بازار فراهم می‌کند، قادر به انجام محاسبات اقتصادی دقیق نخواهند بود. +از سال ۱۹۲۲، لودویگ فن میزس در کتاب خود _[سوسیالیسم](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ نشان داد که سوسیالیسم به کمبودهای گسترده‌ای منجر خواهد شد، زیرا برنامه‌ریزان مرکزی بدون سیستم قیمتی که بازار فراهم می‌کند، قادر به انجام محاسبات اقتصادی دقیق نخواهند بود. ## جاده‌ای به سوی بردگی @@ -2049,7 +2093,9 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -هایک که از افزایش مداخله‌گرایی دولت در اقتصادهای دموکراسی‌های غربی نگران شده بود، کتاب _راهی به سوی بردگی_ را به عنوان یک نقد فلسفی از جمع‌گرایی، چه از راست و چه از چپ، نوشت. این کتاب که به لطف _Reader’s Digest_ در چندین میلیون نسخه منتشر شد، به شهرت هایک در ایالات متحده کمک شایانی کرده است. +### هشدار هایک علیه جمع‌گرایی + +هایک که از افزایش مداخله‌گرایی دولت در اقتصادهای دموکراسی‌های غربی نگران شده بود، کتاب _[راهی به سوی بردگی](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ را به عنوان یک نقد فلسفی از جمع‌گرایی، چه از راست و چه از چپ، نوشت. این کتاب که به لطف _Reader’s Digest_ در چندین میلیون نسخه منتشر شد، به شهرت هایک در ایالات متحده کمک شایانی کرده است. ![image](assets/fa/086.webp) @@ -2112,6 +2158,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### انقلاب کینزی + اغلباً سرمایه‌داری به عنوان منبع دستور: "ما باید همیشه بیشتر تولید کنیم"، یا فرمول: "مصرف کردن برای رشد خوب است" متهم می‌شود. با این حال، این ایده‌ها از سرمایه‌داری سنتی نشأت نمی‌گیرند بلکه از کینزیانیسم سرچشمه می‌گیرند که از دهه ۱۹۳۰ بر حوزه علم اقتصاد و طبقه سیاسی تسلط داشته است. @@ -2121,7 +2169,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ ### تحلیل بحران ۱۹۲۹ -منتشر شده در سال 1936، کتاب جان مینارد کینز: _نظریه عمومی اشتغال، بهره و پول_، همه چیز را در مسیر خود جارو کرد. با پرسش از علل رکود بزرگ و راه‌های خروج از آن، او یک پارادایم اقتصادی جدید را توصیف می‌کند که نسل‌های اقتصاددانان و سیاستمداران را متحول خواهد کرد. +منتشر شده در سال 1936، کتاب جان مینارد کینز: _[نظریه عمومی اشتغال، بهره و پول](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_، همه چیز را در مسیر خود جارو کرد. با پرسش از علل رکود بزرگ و راه‌های خروج از آن، او یک پارادایم اقتصادی جدید را توصیف می‌کند که نسل‌های اقتصاددانان و سیاستمداران را متحول خواهد کرد. ![image](assets/fa/089.webp) @@ -2183,7 +2231,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ ![image](assets/fa/094.webp) -در _گناه پولی غرب_، در سال 1971، روف می‌نویسد: +در _[گناه پولی غرب](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_، در سال 1971، روف می‌نویسد: > این از طریق کسری بودجه است که انسان‌ها آزادی خود را از دست می‌دهند. @@ -2207,6 +2255,8 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### پول و تمدن + پول ابزاری است که به انسان‌ها اجازه داده است تا از مبادله کالا به کالا فراتر روند، پس‌انداز کنند و از طریق بازار در مقیاس بزرگ هماهنگ شوند. این امکان را برای تخصصی شدن کار، مزایای نسبی، سود از تجارت و محاسبات اقتصادی فراهم کرده است. بدون پول، تمدن مدرن وجود ندارد. @@ -2271,7 +2321,7 @@ _تجارت و دولت_ حاوی چیزی است که بعدها نظریه‌ ### یک بازار پولی بدون انحصار دولتی ممکن است -در سال 1976، هایک جایگزینی برای انحصار دولت در ایجاد ارز پیشنهاد داد: رقابت بین ارزها. در کتاب خود، _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_)، او بازاری پولی بدون انحصار دولتی را تصور کرد که در آن چندین ارز خصوصی وجود داشته باشد. ایجاد و مدیریت ارزهای مختلف توسط نهادهای خصوصی به افراد اجازه می‌دهد تا پایدارترین و قابل‌اعتمادترین ارز را انتخاب کنند و بدین ترتیب رقابت و انضباط را در میان صادرکنندگان تشویق می‌کند. +در سال 1976، هایک جایگزینی برای انحصار دولت در ایجاد ارز پیشنهاد داد: رقابت بین ارزها. در کتاب خود، _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_)، او بازاری پولی بدون انحصار دولتی را تصور کرد که در آن چندین ارز خصوصی وجود داشته باشد. ایجاد و مدیریت ارزهای مختلف توسط نهادهای خصوصی به افراد اجازه می‌دهد تا پایدارترین و قابل‌اعتمادترین ارز را انتخاب کنند و بدین ترتیب رقابت و انضباط را در میان صادرکنندگان تشویق می‌کند. ![image](assets/fa/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/fi.md b/courses/phi101/fi.md index 7ce63f6e2e0..c81191e0551 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/fi.md +++ b/courses/phi101/fi.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Antiikin ajoista valistuksen aikakauteen vapaus nousi, kun yhteiskunnat omaksuiv :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Johdanto kurssiin + Tervetuloa PHI101-kurssille! Tämä kurssi kutsuu sinut tutkimaan vapauden kehitystä historian läpi analysoimalla suuria ajatussuuntauksia, jotka ovat muokanneet sitä. Tulet huomaamaan, kuinka vapauden käsite on rakentunut vuosisatojen aikana, joko vallan vastustuksena tai sen kanssa yhteistyössä, historiallisella matkalla antiikista nykypäivän keskusteluihin. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Oletko valmis aloittamaan tämän ainutlaatuisen filosofisen matkan vapauden ets :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Miksi tutkia vapauden historiaa? + Miksi tämä kurssi on nimetty vapauden historiaksi? Koska meidän on ymmärrettävä ideoiden ja tapahtumien välinen suhde, jotta voimme paremmin arvioida aikaamme ja toimia harkiten. Menneisyydestä löydämme elementit, jotka auttavat meitä ymmärtämään paremmin, mitä vapaus on ja miksi meidän tulee arvostaa sitä. -> Kun menneisyys ei enää valaise tulevaisuutta, henki kulkee pimeässä (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokratia Amerikassa_.) +> Kun menneisyys ei enää valaise tulevaisuutta, henki kulkee pimeässä (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokratia Amerikassa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/fi/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ Turgot'lle ja Say'lle, Quesnayn oppilaille, on olemassa luonnonlaki, joka on rii Toinen filosofia löytyy kirjoittajilta kuten Rousseau, Robespierre tai Kant, jotka ilmentävät tasavaltalaista perinnettä, jonka mukaan yleisen tahdon suvereniteetti on lain todellinen lähde. Quesnayn aikalaisena Rousseau on anti-fysiokraatti. Hänen mukaansa lainsäätäjän on järjestettävä yhteiskunta, kuten mekaanikko, joka keksii koneen inertistä aineesta. ![kuva](assets/fi/007.webp) -> "Se, joka uskaltaa ryhtyä kansan perustamiseen," sanoo Rousseau, "täytyy tuntea kykenevänsä muuttamaan, niin sanoakseni, ihmisen luontoa, muuntamaan jokaisen yksilön, joka itsessään on täydellinen ja erillinen kokonaisuus, osaksi suurempaa kokonaisuutta, josta tämä yksilö saa tavallaan elämänsä ja olentonsa." (_Yhteiskuntasopimus_) +> "Se, joka uskaltaa ryhtyä kansan perustamiseen," sanoo Rousseau, "täytyy tuntea kykenevänsä muuttamaan, niin sanoakseni, ihmisen luontoa, muuntamaan jokaisen yksilön, joka itsessään on täydellinen ja erillinen kokonaisuus, osaksi suurempaa kokonaisuutta, josta tämä yksilö saa tavallaan elämänsä ja olentonsa." (_[Yhteiskuntasopimus](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Tästä näkökulmasta lainsäätäjän tehtävä on järjestää, muuttaa, jopa poistaa omaisuus, jos hän pitää sitä hyvänä. Rousseaulle omaisuus ei ole luonnollinen vaan sopimuksellinen, kuten yhteiskuntakin. Vuorostaan Robespierre vahvistaa periaatteen, että "Omaisuus on jokaisen kansalaisen oikeus nauttia ja hallita lain hänelle takaamaa omaisuuden osaa." Luonnollista oikeutta omaisuuteen ei ole; on vain ääretön määrä mahdollisia ja tilapäisiä järjestelyjä. @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ Tästä näkökulmasta lainsäätäjän tehtävä on järjestää, muuttaa, jopa :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Kaitselmuksellisen lainsäätäjän myytti + Kun avaa oppikirjoja, Bastiat huomautti, oppii, että ihmiskunta olisi tuomittu tyhjyyteen ilman vallan väliintuloa: > "Riittää, että avaa melkein sattumanvaraisesti filosofian, politiikan tai historian kirjan nähdäkseen, kuinka syvään juurtunut on meidän maassamme tämä ajatus, joka on saanut alkunsa klassisista opinnoista ja on sosialismin äiti, että ihmiskunta on inertti aine, joka saa vallalta elämän, järjestelyn, moraalin ja vaurauden; — tai pahempi, että ihmiskunta itse pyrkii kohti omaa alennustilaansa ja vain lainsäätäjän mysteerinen käsi pysäyttää sen tällä liukkaalla rinteellä." ([_Laki_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ Muutama päivä ennen kuolemaansa Roomassa vuonna 1850 Bastiat uskoi ystävälle :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Voittajien kirjoittama historia + Tiedetään, historiaa kirjoittavat voittajat. Huomio keskittyy usein vallan valloitukseen, vallassa olevien johtajien elämään ja konflikteihin, jotka heillä on niiden kanssa, jotka haluavat ottaa heidän paikkansa. ![kuva](assets/fi/010.webp) @@ -214,6 +222,8 @@ Tämä teesi löytyy myös monumentaalisesta teoksesta vuodelta 1983: _Laki ja v :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Sosialistinen näkemys historiasta + Toinen näkökulma historiaan on kuitenkin olemassa. Se on ollut varsin menestyksekäs ja nauttinut pitkään Länsimaiden älymystön ja Etelän maiden edustajien tuesta. Kyseessä on sosialistinen ja marxilainen historianäkemys. ![kuva](assets/fi/013.webp) @@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ Tämä analyysi heijastaa väärinkäsitystä ylijäämäarvosta ja talouseläm ### Teollinen vallankumous kyseenalaisena -Itse asiassa marxilainen analyysi vääristää teollisen vallankumouksen historiallista todellisuutta. Ludwig von Mises selvensi tätä kysymystä taloustieteen teoksessaan [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (katso erityisesti luku [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) sekä sarjassa luentoja, jotka on julkaistu nimellä: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Myös lukemisen arvoinen, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [täällä](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ja [täällä](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Itse asiassa marxilainen analyysi vääristää teollisen vallankumouksen historiallista todellisuutta. Ludwig von Mises selvensi tätä kysymystä taloustieteen teoksessaan [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (katso erityisesti luku [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) sekä sarjassa luentoja, jotka on julkaistu nimellä: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Myös lukemisen arvoinen, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [täällä](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ja [täällä](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![kuva](assets/fi/014.webp) Mises selittää, että tehdastyöt, vaikka ne meidän standardeillamme olivat kurjia, edustivat aikansa työläisille parasta mahdollista tilaisuutta. @@ -278,7 +288,9 @@ Juuri tämä radikaalisti hajautettu Eurooppa synnytti parlamentit, valtiopäiv :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -_Anatomy of the State_ -teoksen viimeisessä luvussa (käännetty ranskaksi nimellä _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard esittää historian teorian. Tämä hyvin lyhyt luku on otsikoitu: Historia, kilpajuoksu valtion vallan ja sosiaalisen vallan välillä. Rothbardin mukaan historiaa voidaan ymmärtää ikuiseksi konfliktiksi kahden perusperiaatteen välillä: +### Valtion valta vastaan sosiaalinen valta + +_[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ -teoksen viimeisessä luvussa (käännetty ranskaksi nimellä _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard esittää historian teorian. Tämä hyvin lyhyt luku on otsikoitu: Historia, kilpajuoksu valtion vallan ja sosiaalisen vallan välillä. Rothbardin mukaan historiaa voidaan ymmärtää ikuiseksi konfliktiksi kahden perusperiaatteen välillä: ![kuva](assets/fi/017.webp) @@ -313,7 +325,7 @@ Rothbardin mukaan historia ei ole lineaarinen prosessi, vaan pikemminkin vaihtel 17. vuosisadalta 19. vuosisadalle monissa länsimaissa oli kausia, jolloin sosiaalinen valta kiihtyi ja vastaavasti vapaus, rauha ja materiaalinen hyvinvointi lisääntyivät. Mutta Rothbard muistuttaa meitä siitä, että 20. vuosisataa leimasi valtion vallan uudelleennousu, tuhoisin seurauksin: orjuuden, sodan ja tuhon lisääntyminen: > Tänä vuosisatana ihmiskunta kohtaa jälleen valtion virulentin hallinnan; valtio nyt aseistettuna ihmisen luovalla voimalla, takavarikoituna ja vääristettynä omiin tarkoituksiinsa. -> Mikä on vapaa yhteiskunta, loppujen lopuksi? Se on yhteiskunta ilman monopolia. Poliittisen filosofiansa teoksessa _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982) Rothbard vastaa: "yhteiskunta, jossa ei ole laillista mahdollisuutta pakottavaan aggressioon yksilön henkilöä tai omaisuutta vastaan." Tämän vuoksi, hänen mukaansa, poliittinen filosofia, joka täytyy määritellä oikeudenmukaisen yhteiskunnan periaatteet, tiivistyy yhteen ainoaan kysymykseen: "Kuka laillisesti omistaa mitä?" +> Mikä on vapaa yhteiskunta, loppujen lopuksi? Se on yhteiskunta ilman monopolia. Poliittisen filosofiansa teoksessa _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) Rothbard vastaa: "yhteiskunta, jossa ei ole laillista mahdollisuutta pakottavaan aggressioon yksilön henkilöä tai omaisuutta vastaan." Tämän vuoksi, hänen mukaansa, poliittinen filosofia, joka täytyy määritellä oikeudenmukaisen yhteiskunnan periaatteet, tiivistyy yhteen ainoaan kysymykseen: "Kuka laillisesti omistaa mitä?" > ![kuva](assets/fi/019.webp) Rothbardin mukaan sosiaalinen järjestys voi vallita, jos se on yleistettyjen sopimusmenettelyjen tuote omaisuusoikeuksien vapaalle vaihdolle, taloudellisten toimintojen ja jopa suvereenien toimintojen (keskuspankki, tuomioistuimet) yksityistämisen kautta ja turvautumalla suojelupalveluiden kesken kilpailuun. @@ -334,6 +346,8 @@ Ja hän lisää: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Ateenan demokratian perintö + Ateenalaisen demokratian kokemus on jättänyt pysyvän jäljen poliittisen ajattelun historiaan ja jatkaa demokratian ja kansalaisosallistumisen ihanteiden inspiroimista tämän päivän maailmassa. ![kuva](assets/fi/020.webp) @@ -425,6 +439,8 @@ Ainoa keino, jolla voimme lähestyä totuutta, ovat kritiikki ja keskustelu. Ant :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kosmopoliittinen imperiumi + Rooman valtakunta oli laaja kosmopoliittinen kokonaisuus. Sen huipulla, noin vuonna 117 jaa., se oli valtava monietninen ja monikielinen valtio: - Lännessä se ulottui Iso-Britanniasta (nykyinen Englanti) Espanjaan, kulkien Gallian (nykyinen Ranska) ja Pohjois-Afrikan kautta. @@ -526,6 +542,8 @@ Väittäessään, että lakia ei voida pelkistää pelkästään lainsäätäjä :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Rappio ja romahdus + Miksi Rooma heikkeni ja lopulta tuhoutui? Monet haluavat ajatella, että Rooman valtakunta romahti äkillisesti, barbaarien hyökkäysten vaikutuksesta. Kuitenkin Rooman valtakunnan tuhon syyt löytyvät paljon aikaisemmin, imperialismista sekä taloudellisesta ja rahapoliittisesta ohjauksesta. @@ -599,6 +617,8 @@ Ja hän lisää: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Yksilönvapauden kristilliset juuret + Kristillinen vapauden ajatus kehittyi keskiajan teologiassa Pyhästä Augustinuksesta 300-luvulla Pyhään Tuomas Akvinolaiseen 1200-luvulla. Mikä on tämä ajatus? ![image](assets/fi/037.webp) @@ -650,6 +670,8 @@ Pyhän Tuomaan mukaan: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Järjen autonomia + Keskiajalla järki ja usko kilpailevat pääsystä totuuteen. Abélardin ja Albertus Magnuksen jälkeen Tuomas Akvinolainen, 1200-luvulla, päätti puolustaa järjen oikeuksia ja sen autonomiaa uskoon nähden. ![image](assets/fi/040.webp) @@ -688,6 +710,8 @@ Tästä lähtien uskonnollinen rationalismi voittaisi lopullisesti mystismin. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Teologis-poliittinen järjestelmä + Keskiajalla kirkko ja kristilliset monarkiat perivät poliittisen mallin Rooman valtakunnalta, jota historioitsijat kutsuvat teologis-poliittiseksi järjestelmäksi, tarkoittaen järjestelmää, jossa valta on pyhä, eli poliittinen johtaja on myös uskonnollinen johtaja. Tämä on syy, miksi keskiaikaisia yhteiskuntia luonnehtii politiikkaan ja uskontoon perustuva yksimielisyys. Poliittinen valta perustaa legitiimiytensä, auktoriteettinsa ja yhtenäisyytensä kristilliseen (tai muslimi) uskoon. Se pitää itseään kulttuurisen ja uskonnollisen ortodoksisuuden vartijana ja kohtelee parioina niitä, jotka poikkeavat tästä yksimielisyydestä. Tässä kontekstissa, vaikka tietylle suvaitsevaisuudelle voitiin myöntää tilaa niille, jotka irtautuvat yhteisestä kulttuurinäkemyksestä (kuten juutalaiset), heille ei voitu tunnustaa oikeutta pluralismiin. Vasta keskiajan lopussa, Amerikan valloituksen myötä, kirkolle tuli ratkaisevan tärkeäksi siviilivapauksien ongelma ja syntyi ensimmäinen oikeusfilosofia, joka vahvisti ja suojeli yksilön vapauksia, legitimoiti pluralismin ja tuomitsi valtion pakottamisen. @@ -726,6 +750,8 @@ Kirkon teokraattinen kiusaus törmää myös "jumalallisen oikeuden" teoriaan. J :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Ihminen luotu Jumalan kuvaksi + Muinaiset ajattelutavat alistivat ihmisen jumalalliseen kosmokseen, eli täydelliseen maailmankaikkeuteen, jonka osa hän oli vain. Monoteismi puolestaan väittää ihmisen äärettömän ylemmyyden luontoa kohtaan, sikäli kuin ihminen on luotu Jumalan kuvaksi. Tämä ratkaiseva kohta on todellisen eettisen vallankumouksen alkuperä. Raamattu vahvistaa jokaisen ihmisen pyhän ja äärettömän arvon. Tämän vuoksi raamatullinen etiikka muuttaa suhdettamme pahaan. Se tuo terävän ja ennennäkemättömän herkkyyden ihmiskärsimykselle. Se rohkaisee meitä pitämään epänormaalina ja sietämättömänä pahuuksia, jotka ihmiskunta siihen asti oli pitänyt täysin siedettävinä, erityisesti pahuutta, joka kohdistuu toisiin, heikkoihin, viattomiin. @@ -765,6 +791,8 @@ Ihmiskunnan idea etenee. Alettiin tehokkaasti pitää ajatusta, että on vain yk :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kristinusko ja vapaa talous + Olemme nähneet, että kristinusko asettaa ihmisille moraalisen velvollisuuden työskennellä maailman parantamiseksi. Jumala haluaa ihmisen olevan onnellinen, mutta ei halua saavuttaa hänen hyväänsä hänen puolestaan. Siksi kristityn on taisteltava moraalista pahaa vastaan, rakastettava lähimmäistään, autettava uhreja, lyhyesti sanottuna, työskenneltävä oikeudenmukaisemman ja inhimillisemmän maailman puolesta. Onko kapitalismi, eli vapaa talous, joka perustuu yksityisomaisuuteen ja sopimusvapauteen, yhteensopiva kristillisen velvollisuuden kanssa? Osa vastauksesta löytyy siitä tosiasiasta, että kapitalismi sai alkunsa uskonnollisessa kontekstissa, hyvin ennen protestanttista reformaatiota. Toinen osa vastauksesta koostuu siitä havainnosta, että kapitalismi on paras keino parantaa yksilöiden materiaalista ja moraalista tilaa. Vain vapaa talous, joka perustuu omaisuusoikeuksiin ja vapaaehtoiseen yhteistyöhön, kykenee nostamaan ihmisiä kestävästi köyhyydestä. @@ -831,6 +859,8 @@ Lisäksi, jos kaksi eri valuuttaa hyötyy laillisesta maksuvälineestä, toimija :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Uskonsodat ja valistus + Renessanssista lähtien Eurooppaa repivät uskonsodat. Toleranssi, suvaitsevaisuus, tuli siis yhdeksi valistuksen suurista taisteluista. ![image](assets/fi/050.webp) @@ -868,7 +898,7 @@ _Kymmenennessä kirjeessä_, "Kaupankäynnistä", Voltaire kuvailee ranskalaista ### Totuus vaatii vapautta -Ranskassa ei kuitenkaan puuttunut suuria mieliä. Vähän tunnettu tosiasia on, että Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Laulnen paroni oli ensisijaisesti johtava ajattelija ennen kuin hänestä tuli Rahoitusministeri Ludvig XVI:n alaisuudessa. Hän oli kirjoittanut mestarillisen tutkielman poliittisesta taloudesta, _Pohdintoja vaurauden muodostumisesta ja jakautumisesta_ (1766), joka edelsi _Kansojen varallisuutta_ Adam Smithiltä (1776). +Ranskassa ei kuitenkaan puuttunut suuria mieliä. Vähän tunnettu tosiasia on, että Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Laulnen paroni oli ensisijaisesti johtava ajattelija ennen kuin hänestä tuli Rahoitusministeri Ludvig XVI:n alaisuudessa. Hän oli kirjoittanut mestarillisen tutkielman poliittisesta taloudesta, _Pohdintoja vaurauden muodostumisesta ja jakautumisesta_ (1766), joka edelsi _[Kansojen varallisuutta](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ Adam Smithiltä (1776). ![kuva](assets/fi/052.webp) Hänen varhaiset kirjoituksensa heijastavat sitoutumistaan valistuksen filosofiaan. Vuonna 1754 hän julkaisi _Kirjeitä siviilitoleranssista_ ja vuonna 1757 useita artikkeleita, jotka oli kirjoitettu _Encyclopédie_ -teokseen Diderot'n ja d'Alembert'n toimesta. @@ -886,6 +916,8 @@ Toisin sanoen, suvaitsevaisuus ei tarkoita uskonnollisuuden vastustamista. Se ta :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Talousliberalismin alkuperä + Taloudellinen liberalismi yhdistetään usein anglosaksiseen perinteeseen, joka juontaa juurensa Adam Smithistä, verrattuna "poliittiseen liberalismiin", jonka sanotaan olevan peräisin mannermaisesta valistuksesta, erityisesti Ranskasta. Tämä näkemys on virheellinen. ![kuva](assets/fi/053.webp) @@ -949,6 +981,8 @@ Lyhyesti sanottuna, jos jokainen voi vapaasti tavoitella omaa etuaan luonnonlain :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Kolme historiaa muuttanutta tapahtumaa + 1776 on vuosi, joka usein jää huomaamatta historian oppikirjoissa. Mutta kolmessa maassa, Ranskassa, Skotlannissa ja Pohjois-Amerikassa, useat tapahtumat jättävät lähtemättömän jäljen vapauden historiaan. ### Turgot'n Häpeä @@ -991,7 +1025,7 @@ Se on myös filosofian tutkielma siinä mielessä, että se osoittaa, kuinka vap ### Vapauden manifesti Amerikassa -Vuonna 1776 englantilainen nimeltä Thomas Paine julkaisi Amerikassa tulenaran pamfletin, jossa kritisoitiin Englannin monarkiaa ja kannatettiin Amerikan siirtolaisten itsenäisyyttä: _Common Sense_. +Vuonna 1776 englantilainen nimeltä Thomas Paine julkaisi Amerikassa tulenaran pamfletin, jossa kritisoitiin Englannin monarkiaa ja kannatettiin Amerikan siirtolaisten itsenäisyyttä: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![kuva](assets/fi/059.webp) @@ -1051,6 +1085,8 @@ Tämä spontaanin järjestyksen idea tulisi olemaan keskeinen käsite Friedrich :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularisaatio ja moderni yhteiskunta + Tämän modernin ajanjakson suuri uutuus länsimaisessa historiassa on yhteiskunnan esiinmarssi, joka järjestäytyy uskonnollisen riippuvuuden ulkopuolella. Tämä ei tarkoita uskonnollisen uskon katoamista tai Jumalan kuolemaa. Mutta Jumalasta tulee yksityisasia, joka ei sekoitu enää poliittisiin asioihin. Uskonto ei katoa, mutta sen ohjaava rooli syrjäytetään. Se muuttuu yksilöllisten uskomusten järjestelmäksi. Länsimaisen maailman maallistuminen ei tapahtunut yhdessä yössä. Sitä valmistelivat ideat. Kuten usein, filosofia on suurten kulttuurimuutosten eturintamassa. @@ -1134,7 +1170,7 @@ Amerikassa ei ollut taloudellista ohjailua eikä rahatalouden konkurssia kuten A Rousseau'n ja Robespierren kanssa ranskalaiset halusivat uskoa, että Kansakunnalla tai yleisellä tahdolla oli rajaton valta ja se oikeutti kaiken. Siitä, että kansa hallitsi, pääteltiin, että heillä oli kaikki oikeudet. Oli selvästi ristiriita suurten vallankumouksen periaatteiden ja niiden voittoon käytettyjen keinojen välillä. -Tämä on myös Friedrich Hayekin kirjassaan _Vapauden perustus_ esittämän huomautuksen merkitys: +Tämä on myös Friedrich Hayekin kirjassaan _[Vapauden perustus](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ esittämän huomautuksen merkitys: > Ratkaiseva tekijä, joka teki vallankumouksen pyrkimykset yksilön vapauden edistämiseksi turhiksi, oli se, että se loi illuusion siitä, että koska kaikki valta oli siirretty kansalle, kaikki varotoimet tämän vallan väärinkäytön estämiseksi olivat tulleet tarpeettomiksi. @@ -1148,6 +1184,8 @@ Tämä on myös Friedrich Hayekin kirjassaan _Vapauden perustus_ esittämän huo :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Muinaisten vapaus vastaan moderni vapaus + Benjamin Constantin mukaan vapaus nyky-yhteiskunnissamme ei voi enää ymmärtää antiikin yhteiskuntien tavoin suorana osallistumisena kaupungin asioihin. ![image](assets/fi/070.webp) @@ -1155,14 +1193,14 @@ Benjamin Constantin mukaan vapaus nyky-yhteiskunnissamme ei voi enää ymmärtä ### Yksityiselämän Vapaus Muinaisina aikoina yksilö oli suvereeni julkisissa asioissa mutta orjuutettu kaikissa yksityisissä suhteissaan. Yksilön vapauden uhraaminen korvattiin poliittisten oikeuksien käytöllä: oikeudella suoraan harjoittaa eri osia suvereniteetista, keskustella julkisella torilla, äänestää laeista, lausua tuomioita, arvioida ja tuomita virkamiehiä. Se on poliittista ja kollektiivista vapautta: -Muinaisten vapaus koostui aktiivisesta ja jatkuvasta osallistumisesta kollektiiviseen valtaan. Meidän vapautemme sen sijaan täytyy koostua yksityisen riippumattomuuden rauhanomaisesta nautinnosta; tästä seuraa, että meidän täytyy olla paljon kiinnittynempiä kuin muinaiset yksilölliseen riippumattomuuteemme. (_Muinaisten vapauden vertailu nykyaikaisten kanssa_ (1819)) +Muinaisten vapaus koostui aktiivisesta ja jatkuvasta osallistumisesta kollektiiviseen valtaan. Meidän vapautemme sen sijaan täytyy koostua yksityisen riippumattomuuden rauhanomaisesta nautinnosta; tästä seuraa, että meidän täytyy olla paljon kiinnittynempiä kuin muinaiset yksilölliseen riippumattomuuteemme. (_[Muinaisten vapauden vertailu nykyaikaisten kanssa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/fi/071.webp) Nykyajan vapaus on siviilivapautta, joka sisältää taloudellisen vapauden ja perustuu yksityisyyden oikeuteen. Se on oikeus olla joutumatta minkäänlaisen mielivallan kohteeksi, oikeus ilmaisuun, kokoontumiseen, liikkumiseen, uskonnon harjoittamiseen ja elinkeinon harjoittamiseen. Vapautta ei ole ilman mahdollisuutta valita oma elämäntapa ja arvot, siis ei vapautta ilman mahdollisuutta vetäytyä yhteisöstä ja näin ollen ei vapautta ilman valtion rajoitusta sallia tämän yksityisen tilan olemassaolo. Se on vapaus, joka vastaa sitä, mitä amerikkalaiset kutsuvat siviilioikeuksiksi. Tämä vapauden määritelmä löytyy John Stuart Milliltä: -> Ainoa vapaus, joka ansaitsee nimensä, on vapaus tavoitella omaa hyväämme omalla tavallamme, niin kauan kuin emme yritä riistää toisilta heidän omaansa tai estää heidän pyrkimyksiään saavuttaa sitä. (...) Ihmiskunta hyötyy enemmän antamalla jokaisen elää kuten he näkevät sopivaksi kuin pakottamalla heidät elämään kuten muut pitävät hyvänä. (_Vapaudesta_, 1859) +> Ainoa vapaus, joka ansaitsee nimensä, on vapaus tavoitella omaa hyväämme omalla tavallamme, niin kauan kuin emme yritä riistää toisilta heidän omaansa tai estää heidän pyrkimyksiään saavuttaa sitä. (...) Ihmiskunta hyötyy enemmän antamalla jokaisen elää kuten he näkevät sopivaksi kuin pakottamalla heidät elämään kuten muut pitävät hyvänä. (_[Vapaudesta](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/fi/072.webp) @@ -1198,6 +1236,8 @@ Toisin sanoen vapaassa yhteiskunnassa on välttämätöntä asettaa tiukka raja :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville ja demokraattinen individualismi + Alexis de Tocqueville oli tarkkanäköinen demokratian tarkkailija ja demokraattisen individualismin kriitikko. ![kuva](assets/fi/074.webp) @@ -1272,6 +1312,8 @@ Katso maapalloa. Ketkä ovat onnellisimpia, moraalisimpia ja rauhallisimpia kans :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 1800-luvun kritiikki + 19 vuosisadalla syntyi kapitalismin kritiikki, erityisesti marxilainen kritiikki. ![image](assets/fi/078.webp) @@ -1304,6 +1346,8 @@ Politiikkaan perustuva vallankumous on siis hänen mukaansa harhakuvitelma, niin :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Itävaltalaisen koulukunnan vastaus + Itävallan taloustieteen koulu, jonka perusti Carl Menger 1800-luvun lopussa, vastusti Karl Marxin teorioita alusta alkaen. ![image](assets/fi/081.webp) @@ -1357,7 +1401,7 @@ Marxilaiset uskovat, että sosialismi, talousjärjestelmä, jossa tuotannon väl ![kuva](assets/fi/085.webp) -Jo vuonna 1922 kirjassaan _Sosialismi,_ Ludwig von Mises osoitti, että sosialismi johtaisi laajoihin pula-aikoihin, koska keskussuunnittelijat eivät pystyisi tekemään tarkkoja taloudellisia laskelmia ilman markkinoiden tarjoamaa hintajärjestelmää. +Jo vuonna 1922 kirjassaan _[Sosialismi](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises osoitti, että sosialismi johtaisi laajoihin pula-aikoihin, koska keskussuunnittelijat eivät pystyisi tekemään tarkkoja taloudellisia laskelmia ilman markkinoiden tarjoamaa hintajärjestelmää. ## Tie Orjuuteen @@ -1365,7 +1409,9 @@ Jo vuonna 1922 kirjassaan _Sosialismi,_ Ludwig von Mises osoitti, että sosialis :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Länsidemokratioiden talouksien hallituksen interventioismin noususta huolestuneena Hayek kirjoitti _Tie Orjuuteen_ filosofisena kritiikkinä kollektivismille, oli se sitten oikealta tai vasemmalta. Julkaistu useassa miljoonassa kappaleessa kiitos _Reader’s Digestin_, tämä kirja on suuresti edesauttanut Hayekin maineen kasvua Yhdysvalloissa. +### Hayekin varoitus kollektivismia vastaan + +Länsidemokratioiden talouksien hallituksen interventioismin noususta huolestuneena Hayek kirjoitti _[Tie Orjuuteen](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ filosofisena kritiikkinä kollektivismille, oli se sitten oikealta tai vasemmalta. Julkaistu useassa miljoonassa kappaleessa kiitos _Reader’s Digestin_, tämä kirja on suuresti edesauttanut Hayekin maineen kasvua Yhdysvalloissa. ![kuva](assets/fi/086.webp) @@ -1408,13 +1454,15 @@ Lopuksi Hayek kehottaa aikalaisiaan kääntämään selkänsä "hulluudelle" ja :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Keynesiläinen vallankumous + Kapitalismia on usein syytetty lauseen "meidän täytyy aina tuottaa enemmän" tai kaavan "kuluttaminen on hyväksi kasvulle" lähteeksi. Kuitenkin nämä ideat eivät juonnu perinteisestä kapitalismista, vaan Keynesiläisyydestä, joka on hallinnut taloustieteen alaa ja poliittista luokkaa 1930-luvulta lähtien. ![kuva](assets/fi/088.webp) ### 1929 kriisin analyysi -Vuonna 1936 julkaistu John Maynard Keynesin kirja: _Yleinen teoria työllisyydestä, korosta ja rahasta_, pyyhkäisi kaiken tieltään. Tutkiessaan suuren laman syitä ja keinoja siitä selviämiseen, hän kuvailee uutta taloudellista paradigmaa, joka muuttaisi taloustieteilijöiden ja poliitikkojen sukupolvia. +Vuonna 1936 julkaistu John Maynard Keynesin kirja: _[Yleinen teoria työllisyydestä, korosta ja rahasta](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, pyyhkäisi kaiken tieltään. Tutkiessaan suuren laman syitä ja keinoja siitä selviämiseen, hän kuvailee uutta taloudellista paradigmaa, joka muuttaisi taloustieteilijöiden ja poliitikkojen sukupolvia. ![kuva](assets/fi/089.webp) @@ -1452,7 +1500,7 @@ Alkaen vuodesta 1958, Ranskan talouden oikaisupolitiikka, joka oli inspiroitunut ![image](assets/fi/094.webp) -Teoksessaan _The Monetary Sin of the West_ (Lännen rahallinen synti) vuonna 1971 Rueff kirjoittaa: +Teoksessaan _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ (Lännen rahallinen synti) vuonna 1971 Rueff kirjoittaa: > Budjettivajeen kautta ihmiset menettävät vapautensa. @@ -1469,6 +1517,8 @@ Ei mikään uskonto ole levinnyt maailmassa niin nopeasti kuin työllisyyden usk :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Raha ja sivilisaatio + Raha on väline, joka on mahdollistanut ihmisten siirtymisen vaihdantataloudesta säästämiseen ja suuren mittakaavan koordinointiin markkinoiden kautta. Se on mahdollistanut työn erikoistumisen, vertailuedut, kaupan tuomat hyödyt, taloudellisen laskennan. Ilman rahaa ei ole modernia sivilisaatiota. ### Kulta maailmanlaajuisena standardina @@ -1512,7 +1562,7 @@ Helmikuussa 1965 televisioidussa lehdistötilaisuudessa, kenraali de Gaulle, Rue ### Valtion monopoliton rahamarkkina on mahdollinen -Vuonna 1976 Hayek ehdotti vaihtoehtoa valtion valuutanluonnin monopolille: kilpailu valuutoista. Kirjassaan _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), hän visioi valtion monopolittoman rahamarkkinan, jossa olisi olemassa useita yksityisiä valuuttoja. Eri valuuttojen luominen ja hallinta yksityisten toimijoiden toimesta mahdollistaisi yksilöiden valita vakaimman ja luotettavimman valuutan, kannustaen näin kilpailua ja kurinalaisuutta liikkeeseenlaskijoiden kesken. +Vuonna 1976 Hayek ehdotti vaihtoehtoa valtion valuutanluonnin monopolille: kilpailu valuutoista. Kirjassaan _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), hän visioi valtion monopolittoman rahamarkkinan, jossa olisi olemassa useita yksityisiä valuuttoja. Eri valuuttojen luominen ja hallinta yksityisten toimijoiden toimesta mahdollistaisi yksilöiden valita vakaimman ja luotettavimman valuutan, kannustaen näin kilpailua ja kurinalaisuutta liikkeeseenlaskijoiden kesken. ![kuva](assets/fi/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/fr.md b/courses/phi101/fr.md index cc076ca5db4..143d64b6775 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/fr.md +++ b/courses/phi101/fr.md @@ -24,6 +24,8 @@ De l'Antiquité aux Lumières, la liberté s'est élevée à mesure que les soci :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introduction au cours + Bienvenue dans le cours PHI101 ! Cette formation vous invite à explorer l’évolution de la liberté à travers l’histoire en analysant les grands courants de pensée qui l’ont façonnée. Vous découvrirez comment la notion de liberté s’est construite au fil des siècles, en opposition ou en collaboration avec le pouvoir, à travers un parcours historique allant de l’Antiquité aux débats contemporains. @@ -58,6 +60,8 @@ Prêt à plonger dans ce parcours philosophique unique sur la quête de la liber :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Pourquoi étudier l’histoire de la liberté ? + Pourquoi intituler ce cours : une histoire de la liberté ? Parce que nous avons besoin de comprendre la relation entre les idées et les événements, pour mieux juger notre époque et agir avec discernement. C’est dans le passé que nous trouvons les éléments d'une meilleure compréhension de ce qu’est la liberté et des raisons pour lesquelles nous devons la chérir. ![image](assets/fr/001.webp) @@ -115,7 +119,7 @@ La seconde philosophie se retrouve chez des auteurs comme Rousseau, Robespierre > Celui qui ose entreprendre d’instituer un peuple, dit Rousseau, doit se sentir en état de changer, pour ainsi dire, la nature humaine, de transformer chaque individu qui, par lui-même, est un tout parfait et solitaire, en partie d’un plus grand tout dont cet individu reçoive en quelque sorte sa vie et son être. > -> (_Contrat social_, Jean-Jacques Rousseau) +> (_[Contrat social](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_, Jean-Jacques Rousseau) Dans cette perspective, le législateur a pour mission d’organiser, modifier, supprimer même la propriété, s’il le trouve bon. Pour Rousseau, la propriété n’est pas naturelle mais conventionnelle, comme la société elle-même. À son tour, Robespierre pose le principe que : « La propriété est le droit qu’a chaque citoyen de jouir et de disposer de la portion de biens qui lui est garantie par la loi ». Il n’y a pas de droit naturel de propriété, il n’y a qu’un nombre indéfini d’arrangements possibles et contingents. @@ -125,6 +129,7 @@ Dans cette perspective, le législateur a pour mission d’organiser, modifier, :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Le mythe du législateur providentiel Quand on ouvre les manuels scolaires, remarquait Bastiat, on apprend que l’humanité serait vouée au néant sans l’intervention du pouvoir : @@ -214,6 +219,7 @@ Quelques jours avant sa mort à Rome en 1850, Bastiat confiait à son ami Prospe :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### L’histoire écrite par les vainqueurs On le sait, l’histoire est écrite par les vainqueurs. L'attention est souvent portée sur la conquête du pouvoir, sur la vie des dirigeants au pouvoir et sur les conflits qui les opposent à ceux qui souhaitent prendre leur place. @@ -265,6 +271,7 @@ On retrouve également cette thèse dans un ouvrage monumental datant de 1983 : :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### La vision socialiste de l’histoire Une autre vision de l’histoire existe néanmoins. Elle a connu un certain succès et a longtemps bénéficié du soutien des intellectuels occidentaux et des représentants des pays du Sud. C’est la vision socialiste et marxiste de l’histoire. @@ -286,7 +293,7 @@ Cette analyse reflète une compréhension erronée de la plus-value et du caract ### La révolution industrielle en question -En fait, l’analyse marxiste déforme la réalité historique de la révolution industrielle. Ludwig von Mises a clarifié cette question dans son traité d’économie [_L’Action humaine_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (voir en particulier le chapitre intitulé "[Interprétation populaire de la révolution industrielle](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2))", ainsi que dans une série de conférences publiées sous le titre : [_Politique économique. Réflexions pour aujourd'hui et pour demain_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (À lire également, *La mentalité anticapitaliste* [ici](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) et [ici](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +En fait, l’analyse marxiste déforme la réalité historique de la révolution industrielle. Ludwig von Mises a clarifié cette question dans son traité d’économie [_L’Action humaine_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (voir en particulier le chapitre intitulé "[Interprétation populaire de la révolution industrielle](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2))", ainsi que dans une série de conférences publiées sous le titre : [_Politique économique. Réflexions pour aujourd'hui et pour demain_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (À lire également, *La mentalité anticapitaliste* [ici](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) et [ici](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/fr/014.webp) @@ -342,8 +349,9 @@ En conclusion de ce chapitre, l’Europe ne doit pas son décollage économique :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Le pouvoir étatique contre le pouvoir social -Dans le dernier chapitre de _Anatomy of the State_ (traduit en français _L’Anatomie de l’État_, aux éditions Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propose une théorie de l’histoire. Ce chapitre très court est intitulé : L’histoire, course entre pouvoir étatique et pouvoir social. Selon Rothbard, l'histoire peut être comprise comme un conflit permanent entre deux principes fondamentaux : +Dans le dernier chapitre de _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (traduit en français _L’Anatomie de l’État_, aux éditions Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propose une théorie de l’histoire. Ce chapitre très court est intitulé : L’histoire, course entre pouvoir étatique et pouvoir social. Selon Rothbard, l'histoire peut être comprise comme un conflit permanent entre deux principes fondamentaux : ![image](assets/fr/017.webp) @@ -382,7 +390,7 @@ Du XVIIᵉ siècle au XIXᵉ siècle, dans de nombreux pays occidentaux, il y eu > Durant ce siècle, la race humaine fait face, une fois encore, au règne virulent de l’État ; l’État désormais armé du pouvoir créateur de l’homme, confisqué et perverti à ses propres fins. -Qu’est-ce qu’une société libre finalement ? C’est une société sans monopole. Dans son ouvrage de philosophie politique, _L'Éthique de la liberté_ (1982), Rothbard répond : « une société dans laquelle il n’existe aucune possibilité légale d’agression coercitive contre la personne ou la propriété d’un individu ». C’est pourquoi, selon lui, la philosophie politique, qui doit définir les principes d’une société juste, se réduit à une et une seule question : « Qui est légitimement propriétaire de quoi ? » +Qu’est-ce qu’une société libre finalement ? C’est une société sans monopole. Dans son ouvrage de philosophie politique, _[L'Éthique de la liberté](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard répond : « une société dans laquelle il n’existe aucune possibilité légale d’agression coercitive contre la personne ou la propriété d’un individu ». C’est pourquoi, selon lui, la philosophie politique, qui doit définir les principes d’une société juste, se réduit à une et une seule question : « Qui est légitimement propriétaire de quoi ? » ![image](assets/fr/019.webp) @@ -404,6 +412,8 @@ Et il ajoute : :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### L’héritage de la démocratie athénienne + L'expérience de la démocratie athénienne a marqué durablement l'histoire de la pensée politique et continue d'inspirer les idéaux de démocratie et de participation citoyenne dans le monde d'aujourd'hui. ![image](assets/fr/020.webp) @@ -505,6 +515,7 @@ Les seuls moyens dont nous disposons pour approcher la vérité sont la critique :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Un empire cosmopolite L’Empire romain était une vaste entité cosmopolite. À son apogée, vers 117 après J.-C., il était un immense État pluriethnique et plurilingue : @@ -615,6 +626,7 @@ En affirmant que le droit ne peut se réduire aux seules lois édictées par le :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Déclin et effondrement Pourquoi Rome a-t-elle décliné puis finalement chuté ? Beaucoup aiment à penser que l’Empire romain s’est effondré subitement, sous le coup des invasions barbares. Mais les causes de l’effondrement de l’Empire romain sont à chercher bien plus en amont, dans l’impérialisme et le dirigisme économique et monétaire. @@ -700,6 +712,7 @@ Et il ajoute : :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Les racines chrétiennes de la liberté individuelle L’idée chrétienne de la liberté s’est développée dans la théologie médiévale de Saint Augustin au IVᵉ siècle, à Saint Thomas d’Aquin au XIIIᵉ siècle. Quelle est cette idée ? @@ -761,6 +774,7 @@ Il existe donc un droit antérieur à la formation de l'État, un ensemble de pr :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### L’autonomie de la raison Au Moyen Âge, la raison et la foi sont en concurrence pour l'accès à la vérité. À la suite d’Abélard et d’Albert Le Grand, Thomas d’Aquin, au XIIIᵉ siècle, choisit de défendre les droits de la raison et son autonomie par rapport à la foi. @@ -807,6 +821,7 @@ Dès lors, c’est le rationalisme religieux qui va l’emporter définitivement :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Le système théologico-politique Au Moyen Âge, l’Église et les monarchies chrétiennes ont hérité d’un modèle politique qui est celui de l’Empire romain et que les historiens appellent le système théologico-politique, c’est-à-dire un système où le pouvoir est sacral, c’est-à-dire où le chef politique est en même temps un chef religieux. @@ -849,6 +864,7 @@ La tentation théocratique de l’Église se heurte aussi à la théorie du « d :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### L’homme créé à l’image de Dieu La pensée antique subordonne l’homme à un cosmos divin, c’est-à-dire à un univers parfait dont il n’est qu’une parcelle. Le monothéisme, au contraire, affirme la valeur infiniment supérieure de l’homme sur la nature, dans la mesure où l’homme est créé à l’image de Dieu. Ce point capital est à l’origine d’une véritable révolution éthique. Dans la Bible est affirmée la valeur sacrée et infinie de chaque être humain. @@ -890,6 +906,7 @@ L’idée d'humanité progresse. On en vient effectivement à considérer qu'il :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Le christianisme et l’économie libre Nous avons vu que le christianisme fait aux hommes un devoir moral impérieux d’œuvrer à l’amélioration du monde. Dieu veut que l’homme soit heureux mais il ne veut pas réaliser son bien à sa place. C’est donc au chrétien de combattre le mal moral, d’aimer son prochain, de secourir les victimes, bref d’œuvrer pour un monde plus juste et plus humain. Le capitalisme, c'est-à-dire l'économie libre fondée sur la propriété privée et la liberté des contrats, est-il compatible avec le devoir du chrétien ? @@ -960,6 +977,7 @@ De plus, si deux monnaies différentes bénéficient du cours légal, les agents :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Les guerres de religion et les Lumières À partir de la Renaissance, l'Europe allait être ravagée par des guerres de religion. La tolérance fut donc un des grands combats des Lumières. @@ -1001,7 +1019,7 @@ Dans la _Dixième Lettre_, « Sur le commerce », Voltaire décrit ainsi l’ét ### La vérité exige la liberté -Pourtant, la France ne manquait pas de grands esprits. On le sait peu mais Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne, fut d’abord un penseur de premier plan, avant de devenir contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI. Il fut l’auteur d’un magistral traité d’économie politique, _Réflexions la formation et la distribution des richesses_ (1766), antérieur à _La Richesse des nations_ d’Adam Smith (1776). +Pourtant, la France ne manquait pas de grands esprits. On le sait peu mais Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne, fut d’abord un penseur de premier plan, avant de devenir contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI. Il fut l’auteur d’un magistral traité d’économie politique, _Réflexions la formation et la distribution des richesses_ (1766), antérieur à _[La Richesse des nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ d’Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/fr/052.webp) @@ -1023,6 +1041,7 @@ En d’autres mots, être tolérant ce n’est pas être hostile à la religion. :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Les origines du libéralisme économique On associe souvent le « libéralisme économique » à une tradition anglo-saxonne issue d’Adam Smith, pour l’opposer au « libéralisme politique » qui serait issu des Lumières continentales, en particulier de la France. Ce schéma est faux. @@ -1091,6 +1110,7 @@ En bref, si chacun peut poursuivre librement son intérêt privé dans le respec :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Trois événements qui ont changé l’histoire 1776 est une année qui passe souvent inaperçue dans les manuels d’histoire. Mais dans trois pays, France, Écosse et Amérique du Nord, plusieurs évènements vont marquer l’histoire de la liberté d’une empreinte indélébile. @@ -1138,7 +1158,7 @@ C’est également un traité de philosophie en ce qu’il démontre comment l ### Un manifeste pour la liberté en Amérique -En 1776, un anglais nommé Thomas Paine publie en Amérique un pamphlet virulent qui critique la monarchie anglaise et plaide pour l'indépendance des colons américains : _Le Sens commun_ (en anglais _Common Sense)_. +En 1776, un anglais nommé Thomas Paine publie en Amérique un pamphlet virulent qui critique la monarchie anglaise et plaide pour l'indépendance des colons américains : _[Le Sens commun](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_ (en anglais _Common Sense)_. ![image](assets/fr/059.webp) @@ -1204,6 +1224,7 @@ Cette idée d’ordre spontané deviendra un concept-clé dans l’œuvre de Fri :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### La sécularisation et la société moderne La grande nouveauté de cette période moderne de l’histoire occidentale, c’est l’apparition d’une société qui s'organise en dehors de la dépendance religieuse. Cela ne signifie pas la disparition de la croyance religieuse ou la mort de Dieu. Mais Dieu devient une affaire privée, il n’est plus mêlé aux affaires politiques. Il n’y a pas disparition de la religion mais destitution de son rôle directeur. Elle devient un système de croyances individuelles. @@ -1295,7 +1316,7 @@ En Amérique, il n'y eut pas de dirigisme économique, ni de faillite monétaire Avec Rousseau et Robespierre, les Français ont voulu croire que la Nation ou la volonté générale avait un pouvoir illimité et justifiait tout. De ce que le peuple gouvernait, on a conclu qu’il avait tous les droits. Il y avait manifestement une contradiction entre les grands principes de la Révolution, et les moyens employés pour les faire triompher. -C’est d’ailleurs le sens de la remarque de Friedrich Hayek dans son livre _La Constitution de la Liberté_ : +C’est d’ailleurs le sens de la remarque de Friedrich Hayek dans son livre _[La Constitution de la Liberté](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ : > Le facteur décisif qui a rendu vains les efforts de la Révolution en faveur de la promotion de la liberté individuelle, fut qu’elle créa l’illusion que, dans la mesure où tout le pouvoir avait été remis aux mains du peuple, toutes les précautions contre l’abus de ce pouvoir étaient devenues sans objet. @@ -1309,6 +1330,7 @@ C’est d’ailleurs le sens de la remarque de Friedrich Hayek dans son livre _L :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### La liberté des Anciens et celle des Modernes Selon Benjamin Constant, la liberté, dans nos sociétés modernes, ne peut plus se comprendre à la manière des sociétés de l’Antiquité comme participation directe aux affaires de la cité. @@ -1320,7 +1342,7 @@ Chez les Anciens, l’individu est souverain dans les affaires publiques, mais e > La liberté des Anciens se composait de la participation active et constante au pouvoir collectif. Notre liberté, à nous, doit se composer de la jouissance paisible de l’indépendance privée ; il s’ensuit que nous devons être bien plus attachés que les anciens à notre indépendance individuelle. > -> (_De la liberté des Anciens comparée à celle des Modernes_, 1819) +> (_[De la liberté des Anciens comparée à celle des Modernes](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_, 1819) ![image](assets/fr/071.webp) @@ -1330,7 +1352,7 @@ On retrouve cette définition de la liberté chez John Stuart Mill : > La seule liberté digne de ce nom, est celle de travailler à notre propre bien de la manière qui nous est propre, pour autant que nous ne cherchions pas à en priver les autres ou à leur faire obstacle dans leurs efforts pour l’obtenir. (…) L’humanité gagnera davantage à laisser chaque homme vivre comme bon lui semble qu’à le contraindre à vivre comme bon semble aux autres. > -> (_De la liberté_, 1859) +> (_[De la liberté](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/fr/072.webp) @@ -1372,6 +1394,7 @@ Autrement dit, dans une société libre, il est nécessaire d'établir une front :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville et l’individualisme démocratique Alexis de Tocqueville fut un observateur attentif de la démocratie et un critique de l’individualisme démocratique. @@ -1463,6 +1486,7 @@ Conclusion de Bastiat : :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### La critique du XIXᵉ siècle C’est au cours du XIXᵉ siècle qu’émerge la critique du capitalisme, et en particulier la critique marxiste. @@ -1496,6 +1520,7 @@ La révolution politique est donc une illusion, selon lui, tant qu’elle ne s :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### La réponse de l’École autrichienne L'École autrichienne d'économie, fondée par Carl Menger à la fin du XIXᵉ siècle, s'est opposée dès le départ aux théories de Karl Marx. @@ -1557,7 +1582,7 @@ Les marxistes croient que le socialisme, un système économique dans lequel les ![image](assets/fr/085.webp) -Dès 1922, dans son livre _Le Socialisme,_ Ludwig von Mises démontre que le socialisme conduirait à une pénurie généralisée, car les planificateurs centraux ne seraient pas en mesure de faire des calculs économiques précis sans le système de prix fourni par le marché. +Dès 1922, dans son livre _[Le Socialisme](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises démontre que le socialisme conduirait à une pénurie généralisée, car les planificateurs centraux ne seraient pas en mesure de faire des calculs économiques précis sans le système de prix fourni par le marché. ## La route de la servitude @@ -1565,8 +1590,9 @@ Dès 1922, dans son livre _Le Socialisme,_ Ludwig von Mises démontre que le soc :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### L’avertissement de Hayek contre le collectivisme -Alarmé par la montée de l'interventionnisme des gouvernements dans les économies des démocraties occidentales, Hayek écrit _La Route de la Servitude_ (_The Road to Serfdom)_, comme une critique philosophique des collectivismes, qu’ils soient de droite ou de gauche. Tiré à plusieurs millions d’exemplaires, grâce au _Reader’s Digest_, ce livre a largement contribué à la notoriété de Hayek aux États-Unis. +Alarmé par la montée de l'interventionnisme des gouvernements dans les économies des démocraties occidentales, Hayek écrit _[La Route de la Servitude](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ (_The Road to Serfdom)_, comme une critique philosophique des collectivismes, qu’ils soient de droite ou de gauche. Tiré à plusieurs millions d’exemplaires, grâce au _Reader’s Digest_, ce livre a largement contribué à la notoriété de Hayek aux États-Unis. ![image](assets/fr/086.webp) @@ -1614,6 +1640,7 @@ Hayek appelle en conclusion ses contemporains à tourner le dos aux « folies » :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### La révolution keynésienne On accuse souvent le capitalisme d’être à l’origine de l’injonction : « Il faut produire toujours plus », ou bien de la formule : « Consommer est bon pour la croissance ». Pourtant, ces idées ne proviennent pas du capitalisme traditionnel, mais du keynésianisme qui règne depuis les années trente, dans la science économique et dans la classe politique. @@ -1621,7 +1648,7 @@ On accuse souvent le capitalisme d’être à l’origine de l’injonction : « ### L’analyse de la crise de 29 -Paru en 1936, le livre de John Maynard Keynes, _Théorie générale de l'emploi, de l'intérêt et de la monnaie_, a tout balayé sur son passage. S’interrogeant sur les causes de la Grande Dépression et les moyens d’en sortir, il décrit un nouveau paradigme économique, qui va convertir des générations d’économistes et d’hommes politiques. +Paru en 1936, le livre de John Maynard Keynes, _[Théorie générale de l'emploi, de l'intérêt et de la monnaie](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, a tout balayé sur son passage. S’interrogeant sur les causes de la Grande Dépression et les moyens d’en sortir, il décrit un nouveau paradigme économique, qui va convertir des générations d’économistes et d’hommes politiques. ![image](assets/fr/089.webp) @@ -1665,7 +1692,7 @@ En 1947, soit cinq ans après la traduction en français de _La théorie génér ![image](assets/fr/094.webp) -Dans _Le péché monétaire de l’Occident_, en 1971, Rueff écrit : +Dans _[Le péché monétaire de l’Occident](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, en 1971, Rueff écrit : > C’est par le déficit budgétaire que les hommes perdent leur liberté. @@ -1685,6 +1712,7 @@ En 1976, il s’attaque une dernière une fois au keynésianisme dans un article :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### La monnaie et la civilisation La monnaie est un outil qui a permis aux humains de sortir du troc, d’épargner et de se coordonner à grande échelle par le marché. Elle a rendu possible la spécialisation du travail, les avantages comparatifs, les gains à l’échange et le calcul économique. Sans monnaie, il n’y a pas de civilisation moderne. @@ -1738,7 +1766,7 @@ En février 1965, lors d’une conférence de presse télévisée, le général ### Un marché monétaire sans monopole de l'État est possible -En 1976, Hayek a proposé une alternative au monopole de la création monétaire par l’État : la concurrence entre les monnaies. Dans son livre, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of money_), il envisage un marché monétaire sans monopole de l'État dans lequel il existerait plusieurs monnaies privées. La création et la gestion de différentes monnaies par des entités privées permettraient aux individus de choisir la monnaie la plus stable et la plus fiable, encourageant ainsi la concurrence et la discipline des émetteurs. +En 1976, Hayek a proposé une alternative au monopole de la création monétaire par l’État : la concurrence entre les monnaies. Dans son livre, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), il envisage un marché monétaire sans monopole de l'État dans lequel il existerait plusieurs monnaies privées. La création et la gestion de différentes monnaies par des entités privées permettraient aux individus de choisir la monnaie la plus stable et la plus fiable, encourageant ainsi la concurrence et la discipline des émetteurs. ![image](assets/fr/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/hi.md b/courses/phi101/hi.md index afc86442ccb..20cd951262c 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/hi.md +++ b/courses/phi101/hi.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### पाठ्यक्रम का परिचय + PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! यह पाठ्यक्रम आपको इतिहास में स्वतंत्रता के विकास का पता लगाने के लिए आमंत्रित करता है, इसके लिए आपको उन प्रमुख विचारधाराओं का विश्लेषण करना होगा जिन्होंने इसे आकार दिया है। आप पाएंगे कि सदियों से स्वतंत्रता की अवधारणा का निर्माण कैसे किया गया है, या तो सत्ता के विरोध में या सत्ता के सहयोग से, पुरातनता से लेकर समकालीन बहसों तक की ऐतिहासिक यात्रा के माध्यम से। @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### आज़ादी का इतिहास क्यों पढ़ें? + इस कोर्स का शीर्षक "आज़ादी का इतिहास" क्यों रखा गया है? क्योंकि हमें विचारों और घटनाओं के बीच के रिश्ते को समझने की ज़रूरत है, ताकि हम अपने दौर का बेहतर आकलन कर सकें और समझदारी से काम कर सकें। यह अतीत में ही है जहाँ हमें Elements मिलता है - आज़ादी की सही समझ और उसे संजोने के वजहों को बेहतर ढंग से समझने के लिए। -> जब अतीत भविष्य को रोशन नहीं करता, तो आत्मा अंधकार में भटकती है (एलेक्सिस डी टोकविले - _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_)। +> जब अतीत भविष्य को रोशन नहीं करता, तो आत्मा अंधकार में भटकती है (एलेक्सिस डी टोकविले - _[डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_)। ![image](assets/hi/001.webp) वहीं, ऑगस्ट कॉम्टे ने कहा था: "कोई विज्ञान तब तक पूरी तरह नहीं जाना जाता जब तक उसका इतिहास न जान लिया जाए।" यह सच्चाई आज़ादी के विचार पर भी लागू हो सकती है। @@ -113,7 +117,7 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! ![image](assets/hi/007.webp) -> "जो व्यक्ति किसी समाज की स्थापना का साहस करता है," रूसो कहते हैं, "उसे यह क्षमता महसूस करनी चाहिए कि वह मानव प्रकृति को बदल सके, हर व्यक्ति को, जो अपने आप में एक पूर्ण और एकाकी इकाई है, एक बड़े समग्र का हिस्सा बना सके जिससे यह व्यक्ति अपना जीवन और अस्तित्व प्राप्त करता है।" (सामाजिक संविदा) +> "जो व्यक्ति किसी समाज की स्थापना का साहस करता है," रूसो कहते हैं, "उसे यह क्षमता महसूस करनी चाहिए कि वह मानव प्रकृति को बदल सके, हर व्यक्ति को, जो अपने आप में एक पूर्ण और एकाकी इकाई है, एक बड़े समग्र का हिस्सा बना सके जिससे यह व्यक्ति अपना जीवन और अस्तित्व प्राप्त करता है।" ([सामाजिक संविदा](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)) इस नज़रिए से, विधायक का मिशन संपत्ति को व्यवस्थित करना, बदलना, यहाँ तक कि ख़त्म करना भी है अगर उसे ठीक लगे। रूसो के मुताबिक, संपत्ति प्राकृतिक नहीं बल्कि मानव-निर्मित है, जैसे कि समाज खुद। वहीं, रॉबेस्पिएर ने यह सिद्धांत स्थापित किया कि "संपत्ति हर नागरिक का वह अधिकार है जिसमें वह कानून द्वारा गारंटीकृत सामानों के हिस्से का उपयोग और निपटान कर सकता है।" संपत्ति का कोई प्राकृतिक अधिकार नहीं होता; केवल अनगिनत संभावित और अनिश्चित व्यवस्थाएँ होती हैं। ## फ्रेडरिक बैस्टिए: उत्पादन बनाम लूट @@ -122,6 +126,8 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### दैवीय विधायक का मिथक + जब कोई किताबें खोलता है, बास्टियाट ने कहा, तो उसे पता चलता है कि सत्ता के हस्तक्षेप के बिना मानवता का कुछ नहीं बचेगा: > "यह समझने के लिए कि यह विचार हमारे देश में कितना गहराई से जड़ जमाए हुए है — जो शास्त्रीय अध्ययनों से पैदा हुआ और समाजवाद की जननी है — कि मानवता एक निष्क्रिय पदार्थ है जिसे सत्ता से जीवन, संगठन, नैतिकता और धन प्राप्त होता है; या इससे भी बुरा, कि मानवता स्वयं अपने पतन की ओर बढ़ती है और केवल विधायक के रहस्यमय हाथ से ही इस ढलान पर रुकती है, लगभग यादृच्छिक रूप से दर्शन, राजनीति या इतिहास की कोई पुस्तक खोलना ही काफी है।" ([_द लॉ_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html))। @@ -179,6 +185,8 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### विजेताओं द्वारा लिखा गया इतिहास + यह बात मशहूर है कि इतिहास जीतने वालों द्वारा लिखा जाता है। ध्यान अक्सर सत्ता पर कब्ज़ा करने, सत्ता में बैठे नेताओं के जीवन और उन संघर्षों पर केंद्रित होता है जो उन्हें उन लोगों के खिलाफ खड़ा करते हैं जो उनकी जगह लेना चाहते हैं। ![image](assets/hi/010.webp) @@ -223,6 +231,8 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### इतिहास का समाजवादी दृष्टिकोण + हालांकि, इतिहास को देखने का एक और नज़रिया भी मौजूद है। यह काफ़ी सफल रहा है और लंबे समय से पश्चिमी बुद्धिजीवियों और ग्लोबल साउथ के प्रतिनिधियों का समर्थन हासिल करता आया है। यह इतिहास का समाजवादी और मार्क्सवादी दृष्टिकोण है। ![image](assets/hi/013.webp) @@ -249,7 +259,7 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! माइसेस बताते हैं कि फैक्ट्रियों में नौकरियाँ, हालाँकि हमारे मानकों से देखें तो बहुत खराब थीं, उस समय के मजदूरों के लिए सबसे अच्छा मौका थीं। -चलो _Human Action_ से एक अंश पढ़ते हैं: +चलो _[Human Action](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)_ से एक अंश पढ़ते हैं: > औद्योगिक क्रांति के पहले दशकों में, फैक्ट्री मजदूरों की जीवन स्थितियाँ ऊपरी वर्गों के लोगों की स्थितियों और आज के औद्योगिक श्रमिकों की स्थिति की तुलना में बेहद खराब थीं। काम के घंटे लंबे होते थे, कारखानों की सफाई-सुथराई की हालत बदतर होती थी। व्यक्ति की काम करने की क्षमता जल्दी खत्म हो जाती थी। लेकिन सच्चाई यह है कि, सामुदायिक चरागाहों के अधिग्रहण (एन्क्लोजर्स) के कारण जो अतिरिक्त आबादी सबसे बुरी गरीबी में धकेल दी गई थी, और जिनके लिए उस समय के उत्पादन प्रणाली में कोई जगह नहीं थी, उनके लिए फैक्ट्री का काम ही मुक्ति था। ये लोग कारखानों की ओर भागे, सिर्फ इसलिए क्योंकि उन्हें अपने जीवन स्तर को सुधारने की सख्त जरूरत थी। मिसेस ने यह भी जोड़ा कि मानवीय स्थिति में सुधार इस तरह पूंजी के संचय से संभव हुआ: @@ -292,7 +302,9 @@ PHI101 में आपका स्वागत है! :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -_अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में अनुवादित: _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence एडिशन्स द्वारा) के आखिरी अध्याय में, मरे रोथबार्ड इतिहास का एक सिद्धांत पेश करते हैं। यह बहुत ही छोटा अध्याय है जिसका शीर्षक है: "इतिहास, राज्य शक्ति और सामाजिक शक्ति के बीच एक दौड़"। रोथबार्ड के मुताबिक, इतिहास को दो मूलभूत सिद्धांतों के बीच एक लगातार टकराव के रूप में समझा जा सकता है: +### राज्य शक्ति बनाम सामाजिक शक्ति + +_[अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (फ्रेंच में अनुवादित: _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, Résurgence एडिशन्स द्वारा) के आखिरी अध्याय में, मरे रोथबार्ड इतिहास का एक सिद्धांत पेश करते हैं। यह बहुत ही छोटा अध्याय है जिसका शीर्षक है: "इतिहास, राज्य शक्ति और सामाजिक शक्ति के बीच एक दौड़"। रोथबार्ड के मुताबिक, इतिहास को दो मूलभूत सिद्धांतों के बीच एक लगातार टकराव के रूप में समझा जा सकता है: ![image](assets/hi/017.webp) @@ -332,7 +344,7 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में 17वीं सदी से लेकर 19वीं सदी तक, कई पश्चिमी देशों में सामाजिक शक्ति में तेजी आई और इसके साथ ही आजादी, शांति और भौतिक समृद्धि में भी बढ़ोतरी हुई। लेकिन रोथबार्ड हमें याद दिलाते हैं कि 20वीं सदी में राज्य की शक्ति का फिर से उभार हुआ, जिसके गंभीर परिणाम हुए: गुलामी, युद्ध और विनाश में वृद्धि हुई। > इस सदी में, इंसानी नस्ल एक बार फिर राज्य के खतरनाक शासन का सामना कर रही है; अब राज्य के पास इंसान की रचनात्मक ताकत है, जिसे उसने अपने मतलब के लिए जब्त करके बिगाड़ दिया है। -> आख़िर एक आज़ाद समाज है क्या? यह एक ऐसा समाज है जहाँ किसी का एकाधिकार नहीं होता। राजनीतिक दर्शन पर अपनी किताब _एथिक्स ऑफ़ लिबर्टी_ (1982) में रोथबार्ड जवाब देते हैं: "एक ऐसा समाज जहाँ किसी व्यक्ति या उसकी संपत्ति के ख़िलाफ़ जबरदस्ती करने का कोई क़ानूनी अवसर न हो।" इसीलिए, उनके मुताबिक़, राजनीतिक दर्शन, जिसे एक न्यायपूर्ण समाज के सिद्धांत तय करने चाहिए, सिर्फ़ एक ही सवाल पर आकर रुक जाता है: "किसको क्या वैध तरीक़े से मिला हुआ है?" +> आख़िर एक आज़ाद समाज है क्या? यह एक ऐसा समाज है जहाँ किसी का एकाधिकार नहीं होता। राजनीतिक दर्शन पर अपनी किताब _[एथिक्स ऑफ़ लिबर्टी](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) में रोथबार्ड जवाब देते हैं: "एक ऐसा समाज जहाँ किसी व्यक्ति या उसकी संपत्ति के ख़िलाफ़ जबरदस्ती करने का कोई क़ानूनी अवसर न हो।" इसीलिए, उनके मुताबिक़, राजनीतिक दर्शन, जिसे एक न्यायपूर्ण समाज के सिद्धांत तय करने चाहिए, सिर्फ़ एक ही सवाल पर आकर रुक जाता है: "किसको क्या वैध तरीक़े से मिला हुआ है?" > ![image](assets/hi/019.webp) रॉथबर्ड के लिए, सामाजिक व्यवस्था तभी कायम रह सकती है जब यह संपत्ति अधिकारों के मुक्त Exchange के लिए अनुबंधात्मक प्रक्रियाओं के सामान्यीकरण का परिणाम हो, सभी आर्थिक गतिविधियों और यहां तक कि संप्रभु कार्यों (केंद्रीय बैंक, अदालतों) का निजीकरण करके और सुरक्षा एजेंसियों के बीच प्रतिस्पर्धा का सहारा लेकर। @@ -352,6 +364,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### एथेनियन लोकतंत्र की विरासत + एथेनियन लोकतंत्र का अनुभव राजनीतिक विचारों के इतिहास पर एक स्थायी छाप छोड़ गया है और आज की दुनिया में लोकतंत्र और नागरिक भागीदारी के आदर्शों को प्रेरित करता रहता है। ![image](assets/hi/020.webp) @@ -450,6 +464,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### एक बहुसांस्कृतिक साम्राज्य + रोमन साम्राज्य एक विशाल और बहुसांस्कृतिक सत्ता थी। अपने चरम पर, लगभग 117 ईस्वी में, यह एक विशाल बहुजातीय और बहुभाषी राज्य था: @@ -563,6 +579,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### पतन और विनाश + रोम का पतन क्यों हुआ और आखिरकार गिर गया? बहुत से लोग सोचते हैं कि रोमन साम्राज्य अचानक गिर गया, बर्बर आक्रमणों के प्रभाव में। हालाँकि, रोमन साम्राज्य के पतन के कारण बहुत पहले से ही मौजूद थे, जैसे कि साम्राज्यवाद और आर्थिक व मौद्रिक नियंत्रण। @@ -640,6 +658,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता की ईसाई जड़ें + ईसाई आज़ादी का विचार 4वीं सदी में संत ऑगस्टाइन के मध्यकालीन धर्मशास्त्र से लेकर 13वीं सदी में संत थॉमस एक्विनास तक विकसित हुआ। यह विचार क्या है? ![image](assets/hi/037.webp) @@ -692,6 +712,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### तर्क की स्वायत्तता + मध्यकाल में, तर्क और आस्था सच्चाई तक पहुँच के लिए एक-दूसरे से प्रतिस्पर्धा करते थे। 13वीं सदी में, अबेलार्ड और अल्बर्ट द ग्रेट के बाद, थॉमस एक्विनास ने तर्क के अधिकारों और आस्था के सापेक्ष उसकी स्वायत्तता का बचाव करने का चुनाव किया। ![image](assets/hi/040.webp) @@ -736,6 +758,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### धर्मशास्त्रीय-राजनीतिक प्रणाली + मध्यकाल में, चर्च और ईसाई राजतंत्रों ने रोमन साम्राज्य से एक राजनीतिक मॉडल विरासत में लिया, जिसे इतिहासकार धर्मशास्त्रीय-राजनीतिक प्रणाली कहते हैं, यानी ऐसी व्यवस्था जहाँ सत्ता पवित्र होती है, यानी जहाँ राजनीतिक नेता धार्मिक नेता भी होता है। यही वजह है कि मध्यकालीन समाजों को राजनीतिक-धार्मिक एकरूपता से पहचाना जाता है। राजनीतिक सत्ता अपनी वैधता, अधिकार और एकता ईसाई (या मुस्लिम) धर्म पर आधारित करती है। यह खुद को सांस्कृतिक और धार्मिक रूढ़िवादिता का संरक्षक मानती है और उन लोगों को बहिष्कृत समझती है जो इस एकरूपता से भटक जाते हैं। इस संदर्भ में, भले ही उन लोगों के प्रति कुछ सहनशीलता दिखाई जा सकती थी जो सामान्य सांस्कृतिक दृष्टि से अलग होते थे (जैसे कि यहूदी), लेकिन उनके लिए बहुलवाद का कोई अधिकार नहीं मान्य किया जा सकता था। मध्य युग के अंत तक, अमेरिका की विजय के साथ, नागरिक स्वतंत्रताओं का मुद्दा चर्च के लिए महत्वपूर्ण बना और कानून के एक पहले दर्शन का उदय हुआ जिसने व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रताओं को स्थापित और संरक्षित किया, बहुलवाद को वैध ठहराया और राज्य के दबाव की निंदा की। @@ -777,6 +801,8 @@ _अनाटॉमी ऑफ द स्टेट_ (फ्रेंच में :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### ईश्वर की छवि में रचा गया मनुष्य + प्राचीन विचारधारा में इंसान को दैवीय ब्रह्मांड के अधीन माना जाता था, यानी एक परिपूर्ण संसार का सिर्फ एक हिस्सा। वहीं, एकेश्वरवाद यह दावा करता है कि इंसान प्रकृति से अनंत गुना श्रेष्ठ है, क्योंकि वह ईश्वर की छवि में बना है। यह महत्वपूर्ण बिंदु एक सच्चे नैतिक क्रांति की जड़ है। बाइबल हर इंसान के पवित्र और अनंत मूल्य को स्वीकार करती है। इसीलिए बाइबिल की नैतिकता हमारे रिश्ते को बुराई के साथ बदल देती है। यह मानव पीड़ा के प्रति एक तीव्र और अभूतपूर्व संवेदनशीलता लाती है। इसलिए यह हमें उन बुराइयों को असामान्य और असहनीय मानने के लिए प्रोत्साहित करती है जिन्हें मानवता अब तक पूरी तरह सहनीय समझती थी, खासकर दूसरों, कमज़ोरों और मासूमों के साथ की गई बुराई को। @@ -817,6 +843,8 @@ _सुम्मा थियोलॉजिका_ में, सेंट थ :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### ईसाई धर्म और मुक्त अर्थव्यवस्था + हमने देखा है कि ईसाई धर्म लोगों पर दुनिया को बेहतर बनाने के लिए काम करने का नैतिक कर्तव्य थोपता है। भगवान चाहते हैं कि इंसान खुश रहे, लेकिन वह उसकी जगह पर उसका भला हासिल नहीं करना चाहते। इसलिए यह ईसाई पर निर्भर है कि वह नैतिक बुराई से लड़े, अपने पड़ोसी से प्यार करे, पीड़ितों की मदद करे, संक्षेप में कहें तो एक अधिक न्यायपूर्ण और मानवीय दुनिया के लिए काम करे। क्या पूंजीवाद, यानी निजी संपत्ति और अनुबंधों की स्वतंत्रता पर आधारित मुक्त अर्थव्यवस्था, ईसाई कर्तव्य के साथ संगत है? इसका एक जवाब यह है कि पूंजीवाद की शुरुआत धार्मिक संदर्भ में हुई थी, प्रोटेस्टेंट सुधार से भी बहुत पहले। दूसरा जवाब यह देखने में है कि पूंजीवाद व्यक्तियों की भौतिक और नैतिक स्थिति सुधारने का सबसे बेहतर तरीका है। केवल एक स्वतंत्र अर्थव्यवस्था, जो संपत्ति के अधिकार और स्वैच्छिक सहयोग पर आधारित हो, लोगों को गरीबी से स्थायी रूप से बाहर निकाल सकती है। @@ -886,6 +914,8 @@ _सुम्मा थियोलॉजिका_ में, सेंट थ :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### धर्म के युद्ध और प्रबोधन + रेनैसाँस के बाद से, यूरोप धर्म के युद्धों से बर्बाद होने वाला था। इसलिए, सहनशीलता ज्ञानोदय (एनलाइटनमेंट) की महान लड़ाइयों में से एक बन गई। ![image](assets/hi/050.webp) @@ -926,7 +956,7 @@ _सुम्मा थियोलॉजिका_ में, सेंट थ ### सच्चाई को आज़ादी चाहिए -फिर भी फ्रांस में महान विचारकों की कमी नहीं थी। यह बात कम ही लोग जानते हैं, लेकिन ऐनी रॉबर्ट जैक्स टर्गो, बैरन डी लॉल्न सबसे पहले एक प्रमुख विचारक थे, इससे पहले कि वे लुई सोलहवें के अधीन वित्त नियंत्रक बनते। उन्होंने राजनीतिक अर्थव्यवस्था पर एक उत्कृष्ट ग्रंथ, _संपत्ति के निर्माण और वितरण पर विचार_ (1766) लिखा, जो एडम स्मिथ की _द वेल्थ ऑफ नेशंस_ (1776) से पहले प्रकाशित हुआ था। +फिर भी फ्रांस में महान विचारकों की कमी नहीं थी। यह बात कम ही लोग जानते हैं, लेकिन ऐनी रॉबर्ट जैक्स टर्गो, बैरन डी लॉल्न सबसे पहले एक प्रमुख विचारक थे, इससे पहले कि वे लुई सोलहवें के अधीन वित्त नियंत्रक बनते। उन्होंने राजनीतिक अर्थव्यवस्था पर एक उत्कृष्ट ग्रंथ, _संपत्ति के निर्माण और वितरण पर विचार_ (1766) लिखा, जो एडम स्मिथ की _[द वेल्थ ऑफ नेशंस](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776) से पहले प्रकाशित हुआ था। ![image](assets/hi/052.webp) @@ -948,6 +978,8 @@ _सुम्मा थियोलॉजिका_ में, सेंट थ :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### आर्थिक उदारवाद की उत्पत्ति + आर्थिक उदारवाद को अक्सर एडम स्मिथ से जुड़ी एक एंग्लो-सैक्सन परंपरा से जोड़ा जाता है, जिसे "राजनीतिक उदारवाद" के विपरीत माना जाता है - जो कहा जाता है कि यूरोपीय प्रबोधन (खासकर फ्रांस) से निकला है। लेकिन यह नज़रिया ग़लत है। ![image](assets/hi/053.webp) @@ -1015,6 +1047,8 @@ _सुम्मा थियोलॉजिका_ में, सेंट थ :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### तीन घटनाएँ जिन्होंने इतिहास बदल दिया + 1776 एक ऐसा साल है जो अक्सर इतिहास की किताबों में अनदेखा हो जाता है। लेकिन तीन देशों - फ्रांस, स्कॉटलैंड और उत्तरी अमेरिका में कई ऐसी घटनाएँ हुईं जो आज़ादी के इतिहास पर अमिट छाप छोड़ जाएंगी। ### तुर्गोट की शर्मनाक हार @@ -1061,7 +1095,7 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध ### अमेरिका में आज़ादी का घोषणापत्र -1776 में, एक अंग्रेज़ आदमी, थॉमस पेन ने अमेरिका में एक ज़हरीला पैम्फलेट छापा जिसमें अंग्रेज़ राजशाही की आलोचना की गई थी और अमेरिकी उपनिवेशवासियों की आज़ादी की वकालत की गई थी: _कॉमन सेंस_। +1776 में, एक अंग्रेज़ आदमी, थॉमस पेन ने अमेरिका में एक ज़हरीला पैम्फलेट छापा जिसमें अंग्रेज़ राजशाही की आलोचना की गई थी और अमेरिकी उपनिवेशवासियों की आज़ादी की वकालत की गई थी: _[कॉमन सेंस](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_। ![image](assets/hi/059.webp) @@ -1130,6 +1164,8 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### धर्मनिरपेक्षीकरण और आधुनिक समाज + पश्चिमी इतिहास के इस आधुनिक दौर की सबसे बड़ी नई बात यह है कि एक ऐसा समाज उभरा है जो धार्मिक निर्भरता से बाहर खुद को संगठित करता है। इसका मतलब यह नहीं है कि धार्मिक आस्था गायब हो गई है या भगवान मर गए हैं। लेकिन भगवान एक निजी मामला बन जाते हैं, अब राजनीतिक मामलों में नहीं घुले-मिले हैं। धर्म का लोप नहीं हुआ है बल्कि उसके मार्गदर्शक भूमिका को हटा दिया गया है। यह व्यक्तिगत मान्यताओं की एक प्रणाली बन जाता है। पश्चिमी दुनिया का यह धर्मनिरपेक्षीकरण रातोंरात नहीं हुआ। यह विचारों से तैयार किया गया था। जैसा कि अक्सर होता है, बड़े सांस्कृतिक बदलावों में दर्शन सबसे आगे होता है। @@ -1215,7 +1251,7 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध रूसो और रोबेस्पियर के साथ, फ्रांसीसी यह मानना चाहते थे कि राष्ट्र या सामान्य इच्छा की असीमित शक्ति थी और यह सब कुछ सही ठहराती थी। इस तथ्य से कि लोग शासन करते हैं, यह निष्कर्ष निकाला गया कि उनके पास सभी अधिकार हैं। क्रांति के महान सिद्धांतों और उन्हें सफल बनाने के लिए अपनाए गए साधनों के बीच स्पष्ट रूप से एक विरोधाभास था। -यही वो मतलब है जो फ्रेडरिक हायेक ने अपनी किताब _द कॉन्स्टिट्यूशन ऑफ़ लिबर्टी_ में कहा था: +यही वो मतलब है जो फ्रेडरिक हायेक ने अपनी किताब _[द कॉन्स्टिट्यूशन ऑफ़ लिबर्टी](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ में कहा था: > क्रांति के प्रयासों को व्यर्थ कर देने वाला निर्णायक कारक, जो व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता को बढ़ावा देने के पक्ष में था, यह था कि इसने यह भ्रम पैदा कर दिया कि जब तक सारी सत्ता जनता को सौंप दी गई है, तब तक इस सत्ता के दुरुपयोग के खिलाफ सभी सावधानियां अनावश्यक हो गई हैं। # चरमोत्कर्ष और पतन: 19वीं से 20वीं सदी तक @@ -1228,6 +1264,8 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### प्राचीन बनाम आधुनिक स्वतंत्रता + बेंजामिन कॉन्स्टेंट के अनुसार, हमारे आधुनिक समाजों में स्वतंत्रता को अब प्राचीन समाजों की तरह शहर के मामलों में सीधे भाग लेने के रूप में नहीं समझा जा सकता। ![image](assets/hi/070.webp) @@ -1236,14 +1274,14 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध प्राचीन काल में, व्यक्ति सार्वजनिक मामलों में तो स्वतंत्र था, लेकिन अपने सभी निजी संबंधों में गुलाम जैसा। व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता का बलिदान राजनीतिक अधिकारों के उपयोग से पूरा होता था: सीधे तौर पर संप्रभुता के विभिन्न हिस्सों को निभाने का अधिकार, सार्वजनिक चौक पर विचार-विमर्श करने का अधिकार, कानूनों पर मतदान करने का अधिकार, निर्णय सुनाने का अधिकार, मजिस्ट्रेटों का मूल्यांकन और न्याय करने का अधिकार। यह एक राजनीतिक और सामूहिक स्वतंत्रता है: -> प्राचीन लोगों की आज़ादी सामूहिक सत्ता में सक्रिय और निरंतर भागीदारी से बनी थी। वहीं, हमारी आज़ादी निजी स्वतंत्रता के शांतिपूर्ण आनंद में निहित होनी चाहिए; इसका मतलब यह है कि हमें अपनी व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता से प्राचीन लोगों की तुलना में कहीं ज़्यादा जुड़ाव रखना चाहिए। (_प्राचीन और आधुनिक लोगों की स्वतंत्रता की तुलना_ (1819)) +> प्राचीन लोगों की आज़ादी सामूहिक सत्ता में सक्रिय और निरंतर भागीदारी से बनी थी। वहीं, हमारी आज़ादी निजी स्वतंत्रता के शांतिपूर्ण आनंद में निहित होनी चाहिए; इसका मतलब यह है कि हमें अपनी व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता से प्राचीन लोगों की तुलना में कहीं ज़्यादा जुड़ाव रखना चाहिए। (_[प्राचीन और आधुनिक लोगों की स्वतंत्रता की तुलना](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/hi/071.webp) आधुनिक आज़ादी नागरिक स्वतंत्रता है, जिसमें आर्थिक आज़ादी शामिल है और यह निजता के अधिकार पर आधारित है। यह मनमानी के खिलाफ अधिकार है, अभिव्यक्ति, सभा, आवाजाही, पूजा और उद्योग की स्वतंत्रता का अधिकार है। बिना अपनी जीवनशैली और मूल्य चुनने की संभावना के कोई आज़ादी नहीं है, इसलिए समुदाय से अलग होने की संभावना के बिना कोई स्वतंत्रता नहीं है और न ही राज्य की सीमा के बिना यह निजी स्थान बच पाता है। यह वही आज़ादी है जिसे अमेरिकी नागरिक अधिकार कहते हैं। जॉन स्टुअर्ट मिल में आज़ादी की यह परिभाषा मिलती है: -> वही आज़ादी जिसका नाम लेने लायक है, वो ये है कि हम अपने तरीके से अपनी भलाई कर सकें, बशर्ते कि हम दूसरों को उनकी भलाई से वंचित न करें या उनके प्रयासों में रुकावट न डालें। (...) इंसानियत को यही फायदा होता है कि हर व्यक्ति को अपने हिसाब से जीने दिया जाए, बजाय इसके कि उन्हें दूसरों की नज़र में अच्छे तरीके से जीने के लिए मजबूर किया जाए। (_ऑन लिबर्टी_, 1859) +> वही आज़ादी जिसका नाम लेने लायक है, वो ये है कि हम अपने तरीके से अपनी भलाई कर सकें, बशर्ते कि हम दूसरों को उनकी भलाई से वंचित न करें या उनके प्रयासों में रुकावट न डालें। (...) इंसानियत को यही फायदा होता है कि हर व्यक्ति को अपने हिसाब से जीने दिया जाए, बजाय इसके कि उन्हें दूसरों की नज़र में अच्छे तरीके से जीने के लिए मजबूर किया जाए। (_[ऑन लिबर्टी](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/hi/072.webp) @@ -1279,6 +1317,8 @@ _व्यापार और सरकार_ में वह सिद्ध :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### टोकविल और लोकतांत्रिक व्यक्तिवाद + एलेक्सिस डी टोकविल लोकतंत्र का गहरा निरीक्षक था और लोकतांत्रिक व्यक्तिवाद का आलोचक भी था। ![image](assets/hi/074.webp) @@ -1354,6 +1394,8 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19वीं सदी की आलोचना + 19वीं सदी के दौरान ही पूँजीवाद की आलोचना, खासकर मार्क्सवादी आलोचना, सामने आई थी। ![image](assets/hi/078.webp) @@ -1386,6 +1428,8 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### ऑस्ट्रियन स्कूल की प्रतिक्रिया + ऑस्ट्रियन स्कूल ऑफ इकॉनॉमिक्स, जिसकी स्थापना 19वीं सदी के अंत में कार्ल मेंगर ने की थी, शुरू से ही कार्ल मार्क्स के सिद्धांतों का विरोध करता रहा है। ![image](assets/hi/081.webp) @@ -1444,7 +1488,7 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख ![image](assets/hi/085.webp) -1922 में ही, अपनी किताब _सोशलिज्म_ में, लुडविग वॉन मिसेस ने दिखाया था कि समाजवाद से भारी कमी होगी, क्योंकि बाजार द्वारा दी गई कीमत प्रणाली के बिना केंद्रीय योजनाकार सही आर्थिक गणना नहीं कर पाएंगे। +1922 में ही, अपनी किताब _[सोशलिज्म](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ में, लुडविग वॉन मिसेस ने दिखाया था कि समाजवाद से भारी कमी होगी, क्योंकि बाजार द्वारा दी गई कीमत प्रणाली के बिना केंद्रीय योजनाकार सही आर्थिक गणना नहीं कर पाएंगे। ## गुलामी की राह @@ -1452,7 +1496,9 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -पश्चिमी लोकतंत्रों की अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में सरकारी हस्तक्षेप के बढ़ते प्रभाव से चिंतित होकर, हायक ने _द रोड टू सर्फडम_ लिखी, जो दाएं या बाएं किसी भी तरफ के समूहवाद (collectivism) पर एक दार्शनिक आलोचना थी। _रीडर्स डाइजेस्ट_ की वजह से लाखों प्रतियों में प्रकाशित यह किताब अमेरिका में हायक की प्रसिद्धि का एक बड़ा कारण बनी। +### सामूहिकता के विरुद्ध हायेक की चेतावनी + +पश्चिमी लोकतंत्रों की अर्थव्यवस्थाओं में सरकारी हस्तक्षेप के बढ़ते प्रभाव से चिंतित होकर, हायक ने _[द रोड टू सर्फडम](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ लिखी, जो दाएं या बाएं किसी भी तरफ के समूहवाद (collectivism) पर एक दार्शनिक आलोचना थी। _रीडर्स डाइजेस्ट_ की वजह से लाखों प्रतियों में प्रकाशित यह किताब अमेरिका में हायक की प्रसिद्धि का एक बड़ा कारण बनी। ![image](assets/hi/086.webp) @@ -1495,13 +1541,15 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### कीन्सियन क्रांति + पूंजीवाद पर अक्सर यह आरोप लगाया जाता है कि यह "हमें हमेशा ज्यादा उत्पादन करना चाहिए" जैसे आदेशों का स्रोत है, या फिर "उपभोग करना विकास के लिए अच्छा है" जैसे फॉर्मूले का। लेकिन, ये विचार असल में पारंपरिक पूंजीवाद से नहीं, बल्कि कीन्सवाद से आते हैं, जो 1930 के दशक से आर्थिक विज्ञान और राजनीतिक वर्ग पर हावी रहा है। ![image](assets/hi/088.webp) ### 1929 के संकट का विश्लेषण -1936 में प्रकाशित, जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स की किताब: _द जनरल थ्योरी ऑफ एम्प्लॉयमेंट, इंटरेस्ट, एंड मनी_, ने सब कुछ अपने रास्ते में बहा दिया। ग्रेट डिप्रेशन के कारणों और उससे निकलने के तरीकों पर सवाल उठाते हुए, वह एक नए आर्थिक मॉडल का वर्णन करते हैं, जिसने अर्थशास्त्रियों और राजनेताओं की पीढ़ियों को प्रभावित किया। +1936 में प्रकाशित, जॉन मेनार्ड कीन्स की किताब: _[द जनरल थ्योरी ऑफ एम्प्लॉयमेंट, इंटरेस्ट, एंड मनी](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, ने सब कुछ अपने रास्ते में बहा दिया। ग्रेट डिप्रेशन के कारणों और उससे निकलने के तरीकों पर सवाल उठाते हुए, वह एक नए आर्थिक मॉडल का वर्णन करते हैं, जिसने अर्थशास्त्रियों और राजनेताओं की पीढ़ियों को प्रभावित किया। ![image](assets/hi/089.webp) @@ -1545,7 +1593,7 @@ _डेमोक्रेसी इन अमेरिका_ के लेख ![image](assets/hi/094.webp) -_द वेस्ट का मौद्रिक पाप_ में, 1971 में, रूफ़ लिखते हैं: +_[द वेस्ट का मौद्रिक पाप](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ में, 1971 में, रूफ़ लिखते हैं: > यह बजट घाटे के जरिए ही होता है कि आदमी अपनी आजादी खो देता है। वह कहता है: "महँगाई का मतलब है ऐसे खर्चों को सब्सिडी देना जो कुछ नहीं देते, उस पैसे से जो असल में होता ही नहीं।" उनके अनुसार: "अंतरराष्ट्रीय मौद्रिक प्रणाली के विकास को देखते हुए, कोई यही सोचेगा कि पश्चिम लेनिन की सलाह पर अमल कर रहा है, जिसमें कहा गया था: बुर्जुआ व्यवस्था को नष्ट करने के लिए, उसकी मुद्रा को भ्रष्ट करना काफी है।" @@ -1562,6 +1610,8 @@ _द वेस्ट का मौद्रिक पाप_ में, 1971 म :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### पैसा और सभ्यता + पैसा एक ऐसा औज़ार है जिसने इंसानों को वस्तु विनिमय से आगे बढ़ने, बचत करने और बाज़ार के ज़रिए बड़े पैमाने पर तालमेल बैठाने में मदद की है। इसने श्रम विभाजन, तुलनात्मक फायदे, व्यापार से लाभ और आर्थिक गणना को संभव बनाया है। पैसे के बिना, आधुनिक सभ्यता का कोई अस्तित्व नहीं है। ### सोना - वैश्विक मानक @@ -1601,7 +1651,7 @@ _द वेस्ट का मौद्रिक पाप_ में, 1971 म > सोना, जिसकी प्रकृति कभी नहीं बदलती, जिसका कोई राष्ट्रीयता नहीं होती, जिसे हमेशा से और सार्वभौमिक रूप से, सर्वोच्च अपरिवर्तनीय मूल्य के रूप में माना जाता है। ### एक ऐसा मौद्रिक बाजार जिसमें राज्य का एकाधिकार न हो, संभव है। -1976 में, हायक ने मुद्रा निर्माण पर राज्य के एकाधिकार का एक विकल्प सुझाया: मुद्राओं के बीच प्रतिस्पर्धा। अपनी किताब, _पूर एक व्राई कोंकुरेंस दे मोने_ (_द डिनैशनलाइज़ेशन ऑफ़ मनी_) में, उन्होंने एक ऐसी मौद्रिक बाज़ार की कल्पना की जहाँ राज्य का एकाधिकार न हो और कई निजी मुद्राएँ मौजूद हों। निजी संस्थाओं द्वारा विभिन्न मुद्राओं का निर्माण और प्रबंधन व्यक्तियों को सबसे स्थिर और विश्वसनीय मुद्रा चुनने की सुविधा देगा, जिससे जारीकर्ताओं के बीच प्रतिस्पर्धा और अनुशासन को बढ़ावा मिलेगा। +1976 में, हायक ने मुद्रा निर्माण पर राज्य के एकाधिकार का एक विकल्प सुझाया: मुद्राओं के बीच प्रतिस्पर्धा। अपनी किताब, _पूर एक व्राई कोंकुरेंस दे मोने_ (_[द डिनैशनलाइज़ेशन ऑफ़ मनी](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) में, उन्होंने एक ऐसी मौद्रिक बाज़ार की कल्पना की जहाँ राज्य का एकाधिकार न हो और कई निजी मुद्राएँ मौजूद हों। निजी संस्थाओं द्वारा विभिन्न मुद्राओं का निर्माण और प्रबंधन व्यक्तियों को सबसे स्थिर और विश्वसनीय मुद्रा चुनने की सुविधा देगा, जिससे जारीकर्ताओं के बीच प्रतिस्पर्धा और अनुशासन को बढ़ावा मिलेगा। ![image](assets/hi/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/id.md b/courses/phi101/id.md index f14a8346418..d5b8a5b5aea 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/id.md +++ b/courses/phi101/id.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Dari Zaman Kuno hingga Pencerahan, kebebasan meningkat seiring masyarakat merang :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Pengantar Kursus + Selamat datang di kursus PHI101! Kursus ini mengajak Anda untuk mengeksplorasi evolusi kebebasan sepanjang sejarah dengan menganalisis aliran pemikiran besar yang membentuknya. Anda akan menemukan bagaimana konsep kebebasan dibangun selama berabad-abad, baik dalam oposisi maupun kerja sama dengan kekuasaan, melalui perjalanan sejarah dari Zaman Kuno hingga perdebatan kontemporer. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Siap memulai perjalanan filosofis unik ini dalam pencarian kebebasan? Mari kita :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Mengapa Mempelajari Sejarah Kebebasan? + Mengapa memberi judul kursus ini: sejarah kebebasan? Karena kita perlu memahami hubungan antara ide dan peristiwa, untuk lebih baik menilai era kita dan bertindak dengan kebijaksanaan. Adalah di masa lalu kita menemukan elemen untuk pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang apa itu kebebasan dan alasan mengapa kita harus menghargainya. -> Ketika masa lalu tidak lagi menerangi masa depan, roh berjalan dalam kegelapan (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokrasi di Amerika_.) +> Ketika masa lalu tidak lagi menerangi masa depan, roh berjalan dalam kegelapan (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokrasi di Amerika](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/id/001.webp) @@ -111,7 +115,7 @@ Filsafat kedua ditemukan di antara penulis seperti Rousseau, Robespierre, atau K ![image](assets/id/007.webp) -> "Dia yang berani untuk memulai pendirian sebuah rakyat," kata Rousseau, "harus merasa mampu mengubah, seakan-akan, sifat manusia, mengubah setiap individu yang, oleh dirinya sendiri, adalah kesatuan yang sempurna dan terpisah, menjadi bagian dari kesatuan yang lebih besar dari mana individu ini menerima, dalam suatu cara, hidup dan keberadaannya." (_Kontrak Sosial_) +> "Dia yang berani untuk memulai pendirian sebuah rakyat," kata Rousseau, "harus merasa mampu mengubah, seakan-akan, sifat manusia, mengubah setiap individu yang, oleh dirinya sendiri, adalah kesatuan yang sempurna dan terpisah, menjadi bagian dari kesatuan yang lebih besar dari mana individu ini menerima, dalam suatu cara, hidup dan keberadaannya." (_[Kontrak Sosial](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Dari perspektif ini, misi legislator adalah untuk mengatur, memodifikasi, bahkan menghapuskan properti jika dia menganggapnya baik. Bagi Rousseau, properti bukanlah alami tetapi konvensional, seperti masyarakat itu sendiri. Sebaliknya, Robespierre menetapkan prinsip bahwa "Properti adalah hak setiap warga negara untuk menikmati dan mendisposisikan bagian dari barang yang dijamin kepadanya oleh hukum." Tidak ada hak alami atas properti; hanya ada sejumlah tak terbatas kemungkinan dan pengaturan yang bersifat kontingensi. @@ -121,6 +125,8 @@ Dari perspektif ini, misi legislator adalah untuk mengatur, memodifikasi, bahkan :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Mitos Legislator yang Providensial + Ketika seseorang membuka buku teks, Bastiat mencatat, seseorang belajar bahwa umat manusia akan ditakdirkan ke ketiadaan tanpa intervensi kekuasaan: > "Cukup dengan membuka, hampir secara acak, sebuah buku filsafat, politik, atau sejarah untuk melihat betapa dalamnya ide ini, yang lahir dari studi klasik dan ibu dari Sosialisme, bahwa umat manusia adalah materi yang tidak berdaya menerima dari kekuasaan hidup, organisasi, moralitas, dan kekayaan; — atau lebih buruk lagi, bahwa umat manusia itu sendiri cenderung menuju degradasinya dan hanya dihentikan pada lereng ini oleh tangan misterius dari Legislator." ([_Hukum_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -179,6 +185,8 @@ Beberapa hari sebelum kematiannya di Roma pada tahun 1850, Bastiat berbicara kep :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Sejarah yang Ditulis oleh Para Pemenang + Diketahui, sejarah ditulis oleh pemenang. Perhatian sering kali difokuskan pada penaklukan kekuasaan, pada kehidupan para pemimpin yang berkuasa, dan pada konflik yang menentang mereka kepada mereka yang ingin mengambil tempat mereka. ![image](assets/id/010.webp) @@ -221,6 +229,8 @@ Tesis ini juga ditemukan dalam sebuah karya monumental yang berasal dari tahun 1 :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Pandangan Sosialis tentang Sejarah + Namun, ada perspektif lain tentang sejarah yang juga ada. Ini telah cukup sukses dan lama menikmati dukungan dari intelektual Barat dan perwakilan dari Selatan Global. Ini adalah pandangan sejarah sosialis dan Marxis. ![image](assets/id/013.webp) @@ -239,7 +249,7 @@ Analisis ini mencerminkan kesalahpahaman tentang nilai lebih dan sifat kerjasama ### Revolusi Industri dalam Pertanyaan -Faktanya, analisis Marxis mendistorsi realitas historis dari Revolusi Industri. Ludwig von Mises menjelaskan masalah ini dalam risalah ekonominya [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (lihat khususnya bab yang berjudul [Interpretasi Populer dari Revolusi Industri](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) serta dalam serangkaian kuliah yang diterbitkan dengan judul: [_Kebijakan Ekonomi: Pemikiran untuk Hari Ini dan Esok_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Juga layak dibaca, Mentalitas Anti-Kapitalis [di sini](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) dan [di sini](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Faktanya, analisis Marxis mendistorsi realitas historis dari Revolusi Industri. Ludwig von Mises menjelaskan masalah ini dalam risalah ekonominya [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (lihat khususnya bab yang berjudul [Interpretasi Populer dari Revolusi Industri](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) serta dalam serangkaian kuliah yang diterbitkan dengan judul: [_Kebijakan Ekonomi: Pemikiran untuk Hari Ini dan Esok_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Juga layak dibaca, Mentalitas Anti-Kapitalis [di sini](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) dan [di sini](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/id/014.webp) Mises menjelaskan bahwa pekerjaan di pabrik, meskipun menyedihkan menurut standar kita, merupakan kesempatan terbaik yang mungkin bagi pekerja pada waktu itu. @@ -286,7 +296,9 @@ Ini adalah Eropa yang sangat terdesentralisasi yang melahirkan parlemen, diet, d :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Dalam bab terakhir dari _Anatomy of the State_ (diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Prancis sebagai _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, oleh edisi Résurgence), Murray Rothbard mengusulkan teori sejarah. Bab yang sangat singkat ini berjudul: Sejarah, perlombaan antara kekuatan negara dan kekuatan sosial. Menurut Rothbard, sejarah dapat dipahami sebagai konflik abadi antara dua prinsip fundamental: +### Kekuatan Negara versus Kekuatan Sosial + +Dalam bab terakhir dari _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Prancis sebagai _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, oleh edisi Résurgence), Murray Rothbard mengusulkan teori sejarah. Bab yang sangat singkat ini berjudul: Sejarah, perlombaan antara kekuatan negara dan kekuatan sosial. Menurut Rothbard, sejarah dapat dipahami sebagai konflik abadi antara dua prinsip fundamental: ![image](assets/id/017.webp) @@ -320,7 +332,7 @@ Menurut Rothbard, sejarah bukanlah proses linier, melainkan osilasi antara kemaj Dari abad ke-17 hingga abad ke-19, di banyak negara Barat, terdapat periode percepatan kekuatan sosial dan peningkatan kebebasan, perdamaian, dan kesejahteraan material yang sesuai. Namun, Rothbard mengingatkan kita bahwa abad ke-20 ditandai dengan kebangkitan kembali kekuatan Negara, dengan konsekuensi yang mengerikan: peningkatan perbudakan, perang, dan kehancuran: > Selama abad ini, umat manusia menghadapi, sekali lagi, pemerintahan yang ganas dari Negara; Negara kini bersenjatakan kekuatan kreatif manusia, yang disita dan dipergunakan untuk tujuan-tujuannya sendiri. -> Apa itu masyarakat bebas, setelah semua? Ini adalah masyarakat tanpa monopoli. Dalam karyanya tentang filsafat politik, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard menjawab: "masyarakat di mana tidak ada kemungkinan hukum agresi paksa terhadap pribadi atau properti seseorang." Inilah sebabnya, menurutnya, filsafat politik, yang harus mendefinisikan prinsip-prinsip masyarakat yang adil, pada dasarnya bermuara pada satu pertanyaan: "Siapa yang secara sah memiliki apa?" +> Apa itu masyarakat bebas, setelah semua? Ini adalah masyarakat tanpa monopoli. Dalam karyanya tentang filsafat politik, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard menjawab: "masyarakat di mana tidak ada kemungkinan hukum agresi paksa terhadap pribadi atau properti seseorang." Inilah sebabnya, menurutnya, filsafat politik, yang harus mendefinisikan prinsip-prinsip masyarakat yang adil, pada dasarnya bermuara pada satu pertanyaan: "Siapa yang secara sah memiliki apa?" > ![image](assets/id/019.webp) @@ -342,6 +354,8 @@ Dan dia menambahkan: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Warisan Demokrasi Athena + Pengalaman demokrasi Athena telah meninggalkan bekas yang abadi dalam sejarah pemikiran politik dan terus menginspirasi ideal-ideal demokrasi dan partisipasi warga di dunia saat ini. ![image](assets/id/020.webp) @@ -436,6 +450,8 @@ Satu-satunya cara yang kita miliki untuk mendekati kebenaran adalah kritik dan d :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Sebuah Kekaisaran Kosmopolitan + Kekaisaran Romawi adalah entitas kosmopolitan yang luas. Pada puncaknya, sekitar tahun 117 M, itu adalah negara multi-etnis dan multibahasa yang luas: - Di barat, ia membentang dari Britania Raya (Inggris saat ini) hingga Spanyol, melewati Gaul (Prancis saat ini) dan utara Afrika. @@ -538,6 +554,8 @@ Dengan menyatakan bahwa hukum tidak dapat direduksi hanya pada undang-undang yan :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Kemunduran dan Keruntuhan + Mengapa Roma mengalami kemunduran dan akhirnya jatuh? Banyak yang suka berpikir bahwa Kekaisaran Romawi runtuh secara tiba-tiba, di bawah dampak invasi barbar. Namun, penyebab runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dapat ditemukan jauh lebih awal, dalam imperialisme dan dirigisme ekonomi dan moneter. @@ -611,6 +629,8 @@ Dan dia menambahkan: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Akar Kristen Kebebasan Individu + Ide kebebasan Kristen berkembang dalam teologi abad pertengahan Santo Agustinus pada abad ke-4, hingga Santo Thomas Aquinas pada abad ke-13. Apa ide ini? ![image](assets/id/037.webp) @@ -664,6 +684,8 @@ Menurut Santo Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Otonomi Akal + Pada Abad Pertengahan, akal dan iman bersaing untuk mengakses kebenaran. Mengikuti Abélard dan Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, pada abad ke-13, memilih untuk membela hak-hak akal dan otonominya terhadap iman. ![image](assets/id/040.webp) @@ -703,6 +725,8 @@ Sejak saat itu, rasionalisme agama akan secara definitif mengungguli mistisisme. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Sistem Teologis-Politik + Pada Abad Pertengahan, Gereja dan monarki Kristen mewarisi model politik dari Kekaisaran Romawi, yang oleh sejarawan disebut sistem teologis-politik, yang berarti sistem di mana kekuasaan adalah sakral, yaitu, di mana pemimpin politik juga merupakan pemimpin agama. Inilah mengapa masyarakat abad pertengahan dicirikan oleh unanimisme politik-religius. Basis kekuasaan politik mendapatkan legitimasi, otoritas, dan kesatuan dari iman Kristen (atau Muslim). Mereka menganggap diri mereka sebagai penjaga ortodoksi budaya dan agama dan memperlakukan sebagai orang buangan mereka yang menyimpang dari keseragaman ini. Dalam konteks ini, meskipun toleransi tertentu bisa diberikan kepada mereka yang terlepas dari visi budaya bersama (seperti Yahudi), tidak ada hak pluralisme yang bisa diakui untuk mereka. Baru pada akhir Abad Pertengahan, dengan penaklukan Amerika, masalah kebebasan sipil menjadi krusial bagi Gereja dan melihat kemunculan filsafat hukum pertama yang menegaskan dan melindungi kebebasan individu, melegitimasi pluralisme, dan mengutuk paksaan negara. @@ -741,6 +765,8 @@ Godaan teokratis Gereja juga bertentangan dengan teori "hak ilahi." Jika raja-ra :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Manusia Diciptakan Menurut Gambar Tuhan + Pemikiran kuno menempatkan manusia di bawah kosmos ilahi, yaitu, ke dalam semesta yang sempurna di mana ia hanyalah sebuah bagian. Sebaliknya, monoteisme menegaskan nilai manusia yang tak terhingga lebih tinggi daripada alam, sejauh manusia diciptakan menurut gambar Tuhan. Poin penting ini merupakan asal mula revolusi etika yang sejati. Alkitab menegaskan nilai suci dan tak terhingga dari setiap manusia. Inilah sebabnya etika biblikal mengubah hubungan kita dengan kejahatan. Ini membawa sensitivitas tajam dan belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya terhadap penderitaan manusia. Oleh karena itu, ini mendorong kita untuk menganggap sebagai hal yang tidak normal dan tidak dapat ditolerir kejahatan yang sampai saat itu umat manusia anggap dapat ditoleransi, terutama kejahatan yang dilakukan terhadap orang lain, terhadap yang lemah, terhadap yang tidak bersalah. @@ -780,6 +806,8 @@ Ide kemanusiaan berkembang. Secara efektif mulai dipertimbangkan bahwa hanya ada :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kekristenan dan Ekonomi Bebas + Kita telah melihat bahwa Kekristenan memberikan kewajiban moral kepada orang-orang untuk bekerja menuju perbaikan dunia. Tuhan menginginkan manusia untuk bahagia tetapi tidak ingin mencapai kebaikan-Nya di tempatnya. Oleh karena itu, terserah kepada orang Kristen untuk melawan kejahatan moral, mencintai sesama, membantu korban, singkatnya, bekerja untuk dunia yang lebih adil dan manusiawi. Apakah kapitalisme, yaitu, ekonomi bebas berdasarkan pada kepemilikan pribadi dan kebebasan kontrak, kompatibel dengan kewajiban Kristen? Sebagian jawaban terletak pada fakta bahwa kapitalisme berasal dalam konteks agama, jauh sebelum Reformasi Protestan. Bagian lain dari jawaban terdiri dari mengamati fakta bahwa kapitalisme adalah cara terbaik untuk meningkatkan kondisi material dan moral individu. Hanya ekonomi bebas, berdasarkan hak kepemilikan dan kerjasama sukarela, yang mampu secara berkelanjutan mengangkat orang-orang dari kemiskinan. @@ -846,6 +874,8 @@ Lebih lanjut, jika dua mata uang berbeda mendapat manfaat dari tender legal, age :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Perang Agama dan Pencerahan + Sejak zaman Renaissance, Eropa telah dilanda oleh perang agama. Oleh karena itu, toleransi menjadi salah satu pertarungan besar dari Pencerahan. ![image](assets/id/050.webp) @@ -883,7 +913,7 @@ Dalam _Surat Kesepuluh_, "Tentang Perdagangan", Voltaire menggambarkan pola piki ### Kebenaran Membutuhkan Kebebasan -Namun, Prancis tidak kekurangan pikiran besar. Ini sedikit diketahui tetapi Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne pertama-tama adalah pemikir terkemuka sebelum menjadi Pengawas Umum Keuangan di bawah Louis XVI. Dia adalah penulis sebuah risalah cemerlang tentang ekonomi politik, _Refleksi tentang Pembentukan dan Distribusi Kekayaan_ (1766), mendahului _Kekayaan Bangsa_ oleh Adam Smith (1776). +Namun, Prancis tidak kekurangan pikiran besar. Ini sedikit diketahui tetapi Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne pertama-tama adalah pemikir terkemuka sebelum menjadi Pengawas Umum Keuangan di bawah Louis XVI. Dia adalah penulis sebuah risalah cemerlang tentang ekonomi politik, _Refleksi tentang Pembentukan dan Distribusi Kekayaan_ (1766), mendahului _[Kekayaan Bangsa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ oleh Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/id/052.webp) @@ -903,6 +933,8 @@ Dengan kata lain, menjadi toleran tidak berarti menjadi bermusuhan dengan agama. :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Asal-usul Liberalisme Ekonomi + Liberalisme ekonomi sering dikaitkan dengan tradisi Anglo-Saxon yang berasal dari Adam Smith, dibandingkan dengan "liberalisme politik," yang dikatakan berasal dari Pencerahan kontinental, khususnya di Prancis. Pandangan ini tidak benar. ![image](assets/id/053.webp) @@ -966,6 +998,8 @@ Singkatnya, jika setiap orang dapat dengan bebas mengejar kepentingan pribadi me :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tiga Peristiwa yang Mengubah Sejarah + 1776 adalah tahun yang sering tidak mendapat perhatian dalam buku teks sejarah. Namun, di tiga negara, Prancis, Skotlandia, dan Amerika Utara, beberapa peristiwa akan meninggalkan bekas yang tidak terhapuskan dalam sejarah kebebasan. ### Kegagalan Turgot @@ -1008,7 +1042,7 @@ Ini juga merupakan sebuah traktat tentang filosofi karena menunjukkan bagaimana ### Sebuah Manifesto untuk Kebebasan di Amerika -Pada tahun 1776, seorang Inggris bernama Thomas Paine menerbitkan di Amerika sebuah pamflet yang keras mengkritik monarki Inggris dan mendukung kemerdekaan kolonis Amerika: _Common Sense_. +Pada tahun 1776, seorang Inggris bernama Thomas Paine menerbitkan di Amerika sebuah pamflet yang keras mengkritik monarki Inggris dan mendukung kemerdekaan kolonis Amerika: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/id/059.webp) @@ -1068,6 +1102,8 @@ Ide tentang tatanan spontan ini akan menjadi konsep kunci dalam karya Friedrich :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularisasi dan Masyarakat Modern + Novelitas besar dari periode modern ini dalam sejarah Barat adalah munculnya masyarakat yang mengorganisir dirinya di luar ketergantungan agama. Ini tidak berarti hilangnya kepercayaan agama atau kematian Tuhan. Tetapi Tuhan menjadi urusan pribadi, tidak lagi bercampur dengan urusan politik. Tidak ada hilangnya agama tetapi penurunan peran panduannya. Ini menjadi sistem keyakinan individu. Sekularisasi dunia Barat tidak terjadi dalam semalam. Hal itu dipersiapkan oleh ide-ide. Seperti seringkali, filsafat berada di garis depan perubahan budaya besar. @@ -1150,7 +1186,7 @@ Di Amerika, tidak ada dirigisme ekonomi, atau kebangkrutan moneter seperti Assig Dengan Rousseau dan Robespierre, orang Prancis ingin percaya bahwa Bangsa atau kehendak umum memiliki kekuatan tak terbatas dan membenarkan segalanya. Dari fakta bahwa rakyat memerintah, disimpulkan bahwa mereka memiliki semua hak. Jelas ada kontradiksi antara prinsip-prinsip besar Revolusi dan cara yang digunakan untuk membuat mereka menang. -Ini, terlebih lagi, adalah makna dari komentar oleh Friedrich Hayek dalam bukunya _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Ini, terlebih lagi, adalah makna dari komentar oleh Friedrich Hayek dalam bukunya _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Faktor penentu yang membuat sia-sia upaya Revolusi untuk mempromosikan kebebasan individu adalah bahwa itu menciptakan ilusi bahwa, sejauh semua kekuasaan telah diserahkan kepada rakyat, semua tindakan pencegahan terhadap penyalahgunaan kekuasaan ini menjadi tidak perlu. @@ -1164,6 +1200,8 @@ Ini, terlebih lagi, adalah makna dari komentar oleh Friedrich Hayek dalam bukuny :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Kebebasan Kuno versus Kebebasan Modern + Menurut Benjamin Constant, kebebasan, dalam masyarakat modern kita, tidak lagi dapat dipahami seperti masyarakat Antikuitas sebagai partisipasi langsung dalam urusan kota. ![image](assets/id/070.webp) @@ -1172,7 +1210,7 @@ Menurut Benjamin Constant, kebebasan, dalam masyarakat modern kita, tidak lagi d Pada zaman kuno, individu adalah berdaulat dalam urusan publik tetapi diperbudak dalam semua hubungan pribadi mereka. Pengorbanan kebebasan individu dikompensasi dengan penggunaan hak politik: hak untuk langsung menjalankan berbagai bagian kedaulatan, untuk berdeliberasi di alun-alun publik, untuk memilih undang-undang, untuk mengucapkan putusan, untuk mengevaluasi dan mengadili majelis. Ini adalah kebebasan politik dan kolektif: -> Kebebasan para Pendahulu terdiri dari partisipasi aktif dan konstan dalam kekuatan kolektif. Kebebasan kita, di sisi lain, harus terdiri dari kenikmatan damai dari kemandirian pribadi; ini mengikuti bahwa kita harus lebih terikat daripada para pendahulu kepada kemandirian individu kita. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> Kebebasan para Pendahulu terdiri dari partisipasi aktif dan konstan dalam kekuatan kolektif. Kebebasan kita, di sisi lain, harus terdiri dari kenikmatan damai dari kemandirian pribadi; ini mengikuti bahwa kita harus lebih terikat daripada para pendahulu kepada kemandirian individu kita. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/id/071.webp) @@ -1180,7 +1218,7 @@ Kebebasan modern adalah kebebasan sipil, yang mencakup kebebasan ekonomi dan did Definisi kebebasan ini ditemukan dalam John Stuart Mill: -> Satu-satunya kebebasan yang layak disebut nama, adalah kebebasan mengejar kebaikan kita sendiri dengan cara kita sendiri, selama kita tidak mencoba untuk merampas kebaikan orang lain atau menghalangi upaya mereka untuk memperolehnya. (...) Kemanusiaan memperoleh lebih banyak keuntungan dengan membiarkan setiap orang hidup sesuai keinginannya daripada memaksa mereka untuk hidup sesuai dengan apa yang dianggap baik oleh orang lain. (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> Satu-satunya kebebasan yang layak disebut nama, adalah kebebasan mengejar kebaikan kita sendiri dengan cara kita sendiri, selama kita tidak mencoba untuk merampas kebaikan orang lain atau menghalangi upaya mereka untuk memperolehnya. (...) Kemanusiaan memperoleh lebih banyak keuntungan dengan membiarkan setiap orang hidup sesuai keinginannya daripada memaksa mereka untuk hidup sesuai dengan apa yang dianggap baik oleh orang lain. (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/id/072.webp) @@ -1217,6 +1255,8 @@ Dengan kata lain, dalam masyarakat yang bebas, perlu untuk menetapkan batasan ya :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville dan Individualisme Demokratis + Alexis de Tocqueville adalah pengamat demokrasi yang tajam dan kritikus individualisme demokratis. ![image](assets/id/074.webp) @@ -1293,6 +1333,8 @@ Lihatlah dunia. Mana yang paling bahagia, paling bermoral, dan paling damai? Mer :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Kritik Abad ke-19 + Kritik terhadap kapitalisme, dan khususnya kritik Marxisme, muncul selama abad ke-19. ![image](assets/id/078.webp) @@ -1325,6 +1367,8 @@ Revolusi politik oleh karena itu adalah ilusi, menurutnya, selama tidak disertai :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Tanggapan Mazhab Austria + Sekolah Ekonomi Austria, yang didirikan oleh Carl Menger pada akhir abad ke-19, menentang teori Karl Marx sejak awal. ![image](assets/id/081.webp) @@ -1379,7 +1423,7 @@ Marxis percaya bahwa sosialisme, sistem ekonomi di mana sarana produksi dimiliki ![image](assets/id/085.webp) -Sejak awal tahun 1922, dalam bukunya _Socialism,_ Ludwig von Mises menunjukkan bahwa sosialisme akan menyebabkan kekurangan yang luas, karena perencana sentral tidak akan dapat membuat perhitungan ekonomi yang akurat tanpa sistem harga yang disediakan oleh pasar. +Sejak awal tahun 1922, dalam bukunya _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises menunjukkan bahwa sosialisme akan menyebabkan kekurangan yang luas, karena perencana sentral tidak akan dapat membuat perhitungan ekonomi yang akurat tanpa sistem harga yang disediakan oleh pasar. ## Jalan Menuju Perbudakan @@ -1387,7 +1431,9 @@ Sejak awal tahun 1922, dalam bukunya _Socialism,_ Ludwig von Mises menunjukkan b :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Terkejut oleh meningkatnya intervensi pemerintah dalam ekonomi demokrasi Barat, Hayek menulis _The Road to Serfdom_ sebagai kritik filosofis terhadap kolektivisme, baik dari kanan maupun kiri. Diterbitkan dalam beberapa juta kopi, berkat _Reader’s Digest_, buku ini telah sangat berkontribusi pada ketenaran Hayek di Amerika Serikat. +### Peringatan Hayek terhadap Kolektivisme + +Terkejut oleh meningkatnya intervensi pemerintah dalam ekonomi demokrasi Barat, Hayek menulis _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ sebagai kritik filosofis terhadap kolektivisme, baik dari kanan maupun kiri. Diterbitkan dalam beberapa juta kopi, berkat _Reader’s Digest_, buku ini telah sangat berkontribusi pada ketenaran Hayek di Amerika Serikat. ![image](assets/id/086.webp) @@ -1430,13 +1476,15 @@ Kesimpulannya, Hayek meminta rekan-rekannya untuk berpaling dari "kegilaan" dan :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Revolusi Keynesian + Kapitalisme sering dituduh sebagai sumber perintah: "kita harus selalu memproduksi lebih banyak," atau dari formula: "konsumsi itu baik untuk pertumbuhan." Namun, ide-ide ini tidak berasal dari kapitalisme tradisional tetapi dari Keynesianisme, yang telah mendominasi bidang ilmu ekonomi dan kelas politik sejak tahun 1930-an. ![image](assets/id/088.webp) ### Analisis Krisis 1929 -Diterbitkan pada tahun 1936, buku karya John Maynard Keynes: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, menyapu segala yang ada di jalannya. Menanyakan penyebab Depresi Besar dan cara untuk keluar darinya, ia menggambarkan paradigma ekonomi baru, yang akan mengubah generasi ekonom dan politisi. +Diterbitkan pada tahun 1936, buku karya John Maynard Keynes: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, menyapu segala yang ada di jalannya. Menanyakan penyebab Depresi Besar dan cara untuk keluar darinya, ia menggambarkan paradigma ekonomi baru, yang akan mengubah generasi ekonom dan politisi. ![image](assets/id/089.webp) @@ -1474,7 +1522,7 @@ Mulai dari tahun 1958, sebuah kebijakan untuk memperbaiki ekonomi Prancis, terin ![image](assets/id/094.webp) -Dalam _Dosa Moneter Barat_, pada tahun 1971, Rueff menulis: +Dalam _[Dosa Moneter Barat](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, pada tahun 1971, Rueff menulis: > Melalui defisit anggaranlah manusia kehilangan kebebasannya. @@ -1491,6 +1539,8 @@ Tidak ada agama yang menyebar ke seluruh dunia secepat agama pekerjaan. Didorong :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Uang dan Peradaban + Uang adalah alat yang memungkinkan manusia untuk melampaui barter, untuk menyimpan, dan untuk berkoordinasi dalam skala besar melalui pasar. Ini telah memungkinkan spesialisasi tenaga kerja, keuntungan komparatif, keuntungan dari perdagangan, perhitungan ekonomi. Tanpa uang, tidak ada peradaban modern. ### Emas sebagai Standar Global @@ -1535,7 +1585,7 @@ Pada Februari 1965, selama konferensi pers yang disiarkan televisi, Jenderal de ### Pasar moneter tanpa monopoli Negara adalah mungkin -Pada tahun 1976, Hayek mengusulkan alternatif untuk monopoli Negara atas penciptaan mata uang: persaingan antar mata uang. Dalam bukunya, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), dia membayangkan pasar moneter tanpa monopoli Negara di mana beberapa mata uang swasta akan ada. Penciptaan dan pengelolaan mata uang yang berbeda oleh entitas swasta akan memungkinkan individu untuk memilih mata uang yang paling stabil dan dapat diandalkan, sehingga mendorong persaingan dan disiplin di antara penerbit. +Pada tahun 1976, Hayek mengusulkan alternatif untuk monopoli Negara atas penciptaan mata uang: persaingan antar mata uang. Dalam bukunya, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), dia membayangkan pasar moneter tanpa monopoli Negara di mana beberapa mata uang swasta akan ada. Penciptaan dan pengelolaan mata uang yang berbeda oleh entitas swasta akan memungkinkan individu untuk memilih mata uang yang paling stabil dan dapat diandalkan, sehingga mendorong persaingan dan disiplin di antara penerbit. ![image](assets/id/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/it.md b/courses/phi101/it.md index 9650a4493bd..445791299a5 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/it.md +++ b/courses/phi101/it.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Dall'Antichità all'Illuminismo, la libertà è ascesa mentre le società abbrac :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introduzione al corso + Benvenuto al corso PHI101! Questo corso ti invita a esplorare l'evoluzione della libertà attraverso la storia, analizzando le grandi correnti di pensiero che l'hanno plasmata. Scoprirai come il concetto di libertà si sia sviluppato nel corso dei secoli, sia in opposizione che in collaborazione con il potere, attraverso un percorso storico che va dall'Antichità ai dibattiti contemporanei. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Sei pronto a intraprendere questo viaggio filosofico unico alla ricerca della li :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Perché studiare la storia della libertà? + Perché intitolare questo corso: Una Storia Filosofica di Libertà? Perché dobbiamo comprendere la relazione tra idee ed eventi, per giudicare meglio la nostra epoca e agire con discernimento. È nel passato che troviamo gli elementi per una migliore comprensione di cosa sia la libertà e le ragioni per cui dobbiamo tenerla stretta. -> Quando il passato non illumina più il futuro, lo spirito cammina nell'oscurità (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democrazia in America_.) +> Quando il passato non illumina più il futuro, lo spirito cammina nell'oscurità (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democrazia in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/it/001.webp) @@ -110,7 +114,7 @@ La seconda filosofia si ritrova tra autori come Rousseau, Robespierre o Kant, ch ![image](assets/it/007.webp) -> Chi osa intraprendere la fondazione di un popolo, deve sentirsi capace di cambiare, per così dire, la natura umana, di trasformare ogni individuo che, da solo, è un tutto perfetto e solitario, in parte di un tutto più grande dal quale questo individuo riceve, in un certo senso, la sua vita e il suo essere. (_Contratto Sociale_Rousseau) +> Chi osa intraprendere la fondazione di un popolo, deve sentirsi capace di cambiare, per così dire, la natura umana, di trasformare ogni individuo che, da solo, è un tutto perfetto e solitario, in parte di un tutto più grande dal quale questo individuo riceve, in un certo senso, la sua vita e il suo essere. (_[Contratto Sociale](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_Rousseau) Da questa prospettiva, la missione del legislatore è organizzare, modificare, persino abolire la proprietà se lo ritiene opportuno. Per Rousseau, la proprietà non è naturale ma convenzionale, come la società stessa. A sua volta, Robespierre stabilisce il principio che "La proprietà è il diritto di ogni cittadino di godere e disporre della porzione di beni garantita a lui dalla legge." Non esiste un diritto naturale alla proprietà; ci sono solo un numero indefinito di possibili e contingenti disposizioni. @@ -120,6 +124,8 @@ Da questa prospettiva, la missione del legislatore è organizzare, modificare, p :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Il mito del legislatore provvidenziale + Quando si aprono i libri di testo, osserva Bastiat, si scopre che l'umanità sarebbe condannata al nulla senza l'intervento del potere: > "Basta aprire, quasi a caso, un libro di filosofia, politica o storia per vedere quanto profondamente radicata nel nostro Paese sia questa idea, nata dagli studi classici e madre del Socialismo, che l'umanità è una materia inerte che riceve dal potere vita, organizzazione, moralità e ricchezza; — o peggio, che l'umanità stessa tenda verso la sua degradazione, e sia solo fermata verso questa discesa dalla mano misteriosa del legislatore." ([_La legge_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -181,6 +187,8 @@ Pochi giorni prima della sua morte a Roma nel 1850, Bastiat confidò al suo amic :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### La storia scritta dai vincitori + Come è noto, la storia è scritta dai vincitori. L'attenzione è spesso focalizzata sulla conquista del potere, sulla vita dei leader al potere e sui conflitti che li oppongono a coloro che desiderano prendere il loro posto. ![image](assets/it/010.webp) @@ -227,6 +235,8 @@ Questa tesi si ritrova anche in un'opera monumentale datata 1983: _Diritto e riv :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### La visione socialista della storia + Esiste tuttavia un'altra prospettiva sulla storia. Questa ha avuto un notevole successo e ha goduto a lungo del sostegno degli intellettuali occidentali e dei rappresentanti del Sud globale. Si tratta della visione socialista e marxista della storia. ![immagine](assets/it/013.webp) @@ -245,7 +255,7 @@ Questa analisi riflette un'incomprensione del valore aggiunto e della natura coo ### La Rivoluzione Industriale in discussione -In realtà, l'analisi marxista distorce la realtà storica della Rivoluzione Industriale. Ludwig von Mises ha chiarito tale questione nel suo trattato di economia [_Azione umana_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (vedi in particolare il capitolo intitolato [Interpretazione popolare della rivoluzione industriale](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) così come in una serie di lezioni pubblicate sotto il titolo: [_Politica economica: riflessioni per oggi e per domani_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Vale anche la pena leggere, La mentalità anti-capitalista [qui](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) e [qui](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +In realtà, l'analisi marxista distorce la realtà storica della Rivoluzione Industriale. Ludwig von Mises ha chiarito tale questione nel suo trattato di economia [_Azione umana_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (vedi in particolare il capitolo intitolato [Interpretazione popolare della rivoluzione industriale](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) così come in una serie di lezioni pubblicate sotto il titolo: [_Politica economica: riflessioni per oggi e per domani_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Vale anche la pena leggere, La mentalità anti-capitalista [qui](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) e [qui](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/it/014.webp) @@ -296,7 +306,9 @@ Questa Europa radicalmente decentralizzata ha prodotto parlamenti, diete(assembl :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Nell'ultimo capitolo di _Anatomia dello Stato_ (tradotto in francese come _L’anatomie de l’État_, dalle edizioni Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propone una teoria della storia. Questo capitolo molto breve è intitolato: 'Storia, una corsa tra il potere dello Stato e il potere Sociale.' Secondo Rothbard, la storia può essere intesa come un conflitto perpetuo tra due principi fondamentali: +### Il potere dello Stato contro il potere sociale + +Nell'ultimo capitolo di _[Anatomia dello Stato](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (tradotto in francese come _L’anatomie de l’État_, dalle edizioni Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propone una teoria della storia. Questo capitolo molto breve è intitolato: 'Storia, una corsa tra il potere dello Stato e il potere Sociale.' Secondo Rothbard, la storia può essere intesa come un conflitto perpetuo tra due principi fondamentali: ![image](assets/it/017.webp) @@ -335,7 +347,7 @@ Dal XVII secolo al XIX secolo, in molti paesi occidentali, ci sono stati periodi > Durante questo secolo, la razza umana si trova, ancora una volta, sotto il regno virulento dello Stato; lo Stato ora armato con il potere creativo dell'uomo, confiscato e pervertito ai propri fini. > Cos'è, dopo tutto, una società libera? È una società senza monopolio. Nella sua opera di filosofia politica, _Etica della libertà_ (1982), Rothbard risponde: "una società in cui non esiste la possibilità legale di aggressione coercitiva contro la persona o la proprietà di un individuo." Ecco perché, secondo lui, la filosofia politica, che deve definire i principi di una società giusta, si riduce a una sola domanda: "Chi possiede legittimamente cosa?" -Cos'è, dopo tutto, una società libera? È una società senza monopolio. Nella sua opera di filosofia politica, _Etica della Libertà_ (1982), Rothbard risponde: "una società in cui non esiste la possibilità legale di aggressione coercitiva contro la persona o la proprietà di un individuo." Ecco perché, secondo lui, la filosofia politica, che deve definire i principi di una società giusta, si riduce a una sola domanda: "Chi possiede legittimamente cosa?" +Cos'è, dopo tutto, una società libera? È una società senza monopolio. Nella sua opera di filosofia politica, _[Etica della Libertà](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard risponde: "una società in cui non esiste la possibilità legale di aggressione coercitiva contro la persona o la proprietà di un individuo." Ecco perché, secondo lui, la filosofia politica, che deve definire i principi di una società giusta, si riduce a una sola domanda: "Chi possiede legittimamente cosa?" ![immagine](assets/it/019.webp) @@ -357,6 +369,8 @@ Rothbard aggiunge inoltre: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### L'eredità della democrazia ateniese + L'esperienza della democrazia ateniese ha lasciato un segno indelebile nella storia del pensiero politico e continua a ispirare ideali di democrazia e partecipazione dei cittadini nel mondo di oggi. ![immagine](assets/it/020.webp) @@ -455,6 +469,8 @@ L'unico mezzo che abbiamo per avvicinarci alla verità sono la critica e la disc :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Un impero cosmopolita + L'Impero Romano era un'entità cosmopolita vasta. Al suo apice, intorno al 117 d.C., era uno Stato immenso, multi-etnico e multilingue: - Ad ovest, si estendeva dalla Gran Bretagna (l'attuale Inghilterra) alla Spagna, passando per la Gallia (l'attuale Francia) e il nord dell'Africa. @@ -561,6 +577,8 @@ Affermando che la legge non può essere ridotta ai soli statuti emanati dal legi :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Declino e crollo + Perché Roma declinò e cadde infine? Molti amano pensare che l'Impero Romano sia crollato improvvisamente, sotto l'impatto delle invasioni barbariche. Tuttavia, le cause del crollo dell'Impero Romano sono da ricercarsi molto prima, nell'imperialismo e nello statalismo economico e monetario. @@ -636,6 +654,8 @@ E aggiunge: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Le radici cristiane della libertà individuale + L'idea cristiana di libertà si sviluppò nella teologia medievale di Sant'Agostino nel IV secolo, fino a San Tommaso d'Aquino nel XIII secolo. Qual è questa idea? ![image](assets/it/037.webp) @@ -693,6 +713,8 @@ Secondo San Tommaso: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### L'autonomia della ragione + Nel Medioevo, ragione e fede competono per l'accesso alla verità. Seguendo Abélard e Alberto Magno, Tommaso d'Aquino, nel XIII secolo, scelse di difendere i diritti della ragione e la sua autonomia rispetto alla fede. ![immagine](assets/it/040.webp) @@ -736,6 +758,8 @@ Da allora in poi, il razionalismo religioso avrebbe definitivamente prevalso sul :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Il sistema teologico-politico + Nel Medioevo, la Chiesa e le monarchie cristiane ereditarono un modello politico dall'Impero Romano, che gli storici chiamano il sistema teologico-politico. Ovvero un sistema in cui il potere è sacro, cioè in cui il leader politico è anche un leader religioso. Ecco perché le società medievali sono caratterizzate dall'unanimismo politico-religioso. Il potere politico basa la sua legittimità, autorità e unità sulla fede cristiana (o musulmana). Si considera il custode dell'ortodossia culturale e religiosa e tratta come pariah (ovvero come individui di condizione sociale molto bassa) coloro che si allontanano da questa unanimità. In questo contesto, anche se una certa tolleranza poteva essere concessa a coloro che si distaccano dalla visione culturale comune (come gli ebrei), non poteva essere riconosciuto loro alcun diritto al pluralismo. Non fu fino alla fine del Medioevo, con la conquista dell'America, che il problema delle libertà civili divenne cruciale per la Chiesa e vide l'emergere di una prima filosofia del diritto che affermava e proteggeva le libertà individuali, legittimava il pluralismo e condannava la coercizione statale. @@ -776,6 +800,8 @@ La tentazione teocratica della Chiesa si scontra anche con la teoria del "diritt :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### L'uomo creato a immagine di Dio + Il pensiero antico subordinava l'uomo a un cosmo divino, ovvero, a un universo perfetto di cui egli era solamente una parte. Il monoteismo, d'altra parte, afferma il valore infinitamente superiore dell'uomo rispetto alla natura, in quanto l'uomo è creato a immagine di Dio. Questo punto cruciale è all'origine di una vera rivoluzione etica. La Bibbia afferma il valore sacro e infinito di ogni essere umano. Ecco perché l'etica biblica cambia il nostro rapporto con il male. Porta una sensibilità acuta e senza precedenti alla sofferenza umana. Ci incoraggia quindi a considerare come anormali e insopportabili mali che l'umanità fino ad allora aveva trovato perfettamente sopportabili, specialmente il male fatto agli altri, ai deboli, agli innocenti. @@ -814,6 +840,8 @@ L'idea di umanità progredisce. Venne effettivamente considerato che esiste solo :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Il cristianesimo e l'economia libera + Abbiamo visto che il cristianesimo impone un dovere morale alle persone di lavorare per il miglioramento del mondo. Dio vuole che l'uomo sia felice ma non vuole realizzare il suo bene al suo posto. Spetta quindi al cristiano combattere il male morale, amare il prossimo, aiutare le vittime, insomma, lavorare per un mondo più giusto e umano. Il capitalismo, cioè l'economia libera basata sulla proprietà privata e sulla libertà dei contratti, è compatibile con il dovere cristiano? Parte della risposta risiede nel fatto che il capitalismo ha origine in un contesto religioso, ben prima della riforma protestante. L'altra parte della risposta consiste nell'osservare il fatto che il capitalismo è il miglior mezzo per migliorare la condizione materiale e morale degli individui. Solo un'economia libera, basata sui diritti di proprietà e sulla cooperazione volontaria, è capace di sollevare in modo sostenibile le persone dalla miseria. @@ -883,6 +911,8 @@ Inoltre, se due diverse valute beneficiano del corso legale, gli agenti accumule :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Le guerre di religione e l'Illuminismo + Dal Rinascimento, l'Europa sarebbe stata devastata dalle guerre di religione. La tolleranza, quindi, divenne una delle grandi battaglie dell'Illuminismo. ![image](assets/it/050.webp) @@ -922,7 +952,7 @@ Nella _Decima lettera_, "Sul commercio", Voltaire descrive il modo di pensare fr ### La Verità Richiede Libertà -Eppure, alla Francia non mancavano grandi menti. È poco noto ma Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barone de Laulne era prima di tutto un pensatore di spicco prima di diventare il Controllore Generale delle Finanze sotto Luigi XVI. Fu l'autore di un trattato magistrale sull'economia politica, _Riflessioni sulla formazione e distribuzione della ricchezza_ (1766), che precedette _La ricchezza delle nazioni_ di Adam Smith (1776). +Eppure, alla Francia non mancavano grandi menti. È poco noto ma Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barone de Laulne era prima di tutto un pensatore di spicco prima di diventare il Controllore Generale delle Finanze sotto Luigi XVI. Fu l'autore di un trattato magistrale sull'economia politica, _Riflessioni sulla formazione e distribuzione della ricchezza_ (1766), che precedette _[La ricchezza delle nazioni](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ di Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/it/052.webp) @@ -943,6 +973,8 @@ In altre parole, essere tolleranti non significa essere ostili alla religione. S :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Le origini del liberalismo economico + Il liberalismo economico è spesso associato a una tradizione anglosassone che deriva da Adam Smith, contrapposto al "liberalismo politico", che si dice abbia origine dall'Illuminismo continentale, in particolare in Francia. Questa visione è errata. ![immagine](assets/it/053.webp) @@ -1008,6 +1040,8 @@ In breve, se tutti possono liberamente perseguire il proprio interesse privato n :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tre eventi che cambiarono la storia + 1776 è un anno che spesso passa inosservato nei libri di storia. Ma in tre paesi, Francia, Scozia e Nord America, diversi eventi lasceranno un segno indelebile sulla storia della libertà. ### La disgrazia di Turgot @@ -1050,7 +1084,7 @@ Così, il valore non risiede all'interno della cosa sotto forma di una quantità ### Un Manifesto per la Libertà in America -Nel 1776, un inglese di nome Thomas Paine pubblicò in America un opuscolo che criticava aspramente la monarchia inglese e sosteneva l'indipendenza dei coloni americani, intitolato: _Buon senso_. +Nel 1776, un inglese di nome Thomas Paine pubblicò in America un opuscolo che criticava aspramente la monarchia inglese e sosteneva l'indipendenza dei coloni americani, intitolato: _[Buon senso](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![immagine](assets/it/059.webp) @@ -1111,6 +1145,8 @@ Questa idea di ordine spontaneo diventerà un concetto chiave nel lavoro di Frie :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### La secolarizzazione e la società moderna + La grande novità di questo periodo moderno nella storia occidentale è l'emergere di una società che si organizza al di fuori della dipendenza religiosa. Ciò non significa la scomparsa della credenza religiosa o la morte di Dio. Ma Dio diventa una questione privata, non più mescolata con gli affari politici. Non c'è scomparsa della religione ma un detronizzare del suo ruolo di guida. Diventa un sistema di credenze individuali. Questa secolarizzazione del mondo occidentale non è avvenuta dall'oggi al domani. Fu preparata dalle idee. Come spesso accade, la filosofia è all'avanguardia dei grandi cambiamenti culturali. @@ -1194,7 +1230,7 @@ In America, non c'era un dirigismo economico, né un fallimento monetario come q Con Rousseau e Robespierre, i francesi volevano credere che la Nazione o la volontà generale avessero un potere illimitato e giustificassero tutto. Dal fatto che il popolo governava, si concludeva che avesse tutti i diritti. C'era chiaramente una contraddizione tra i grandi principi della Rivoluzione e i mezzi impiegati per farli trionfare. -Questo è, peraltro, il senso dell'osservazione di Friedrich Hayek nel suo libro _La costituzione della libertà_: +Questo è, peraltro, il senso dell'osservazione di Friedrich Hayek nel suo libro _[La costituzione della libertà](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Il fattore decisivo che rese vani gli sforzi della Rivoluzione a favore della promozione della libertà individuale fu che creò l'illusione che, in quanto tutto il potere era stato consegnato al popolo, tutte le precauzioni contro l'abuso di questo potere fossero diventate non necessarie. @@ -1208,6 +1244,8 @@ Questo è, peraltro, il senso dell'osservazione di Friedrich Hayek nel suo libro :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### La libertà antica contro la libertà moderna + Secondo Benjamin Constant, la libertà, nelle società moderne, non può più essere intesa alla maniera delle società antiche come partecipazione diretta agli affari della città. ![image](assets/it/070.webp) @@ -1216,7 +1254,7 @@ Secondo Benjamin Constant, la libertà, nelle società moderne, non può più es Nell'antichità, l'individuo era sovrano negli affari pubblici ma schiavizzato in tutte le sue relazioni private. Il sacrificio della libertà individuale era compensato dall'uso dei diritti politici: il diritto di esercitare direttamente varie parti della sovranità, di deliberare nella piazza pubblica, di votare le leggi, di pronunciare giudizi, di valutare e giudicare i magistrati. Si tratta di una libertà politica e collettiva: -> La libertà degli Antichi consisteva in una partecipazione attiva e costante al potere collettivo. La nostra libertà, invece, deve consistere nel godimento pacifico dell'indipendenza privata; ne consegue che dobbiamo essere molto più attaccati degli antichi alla nostra indipendenza individuale. (_Sulla libertà degli Antichi paragonata a quella dei Moderni_ (1819)) +> La libertà degli Antichi consisteva in una partecipazione attiva e costante al potere collettivo. La nostra libertà, invece, deve consistere nel godimento pacifico dell'indipendenza privata; ne consegue che dobbiamo essere molto più attaccati degli antichi alla nostra indipendenza individuale. (_[Sulla libertà degli Antichi paragonata a quella dei Moderni](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/it/071.webp) @@ -1224,7 +1262,7 @@ La libertà moderna è la libertà civile, che include la libertà economica ed Questa definizione di libertà si trova in John Stuart Mill: -> L'unica libertà che merita questo nome è quella di perseguire il nostro bene a modo nostro, purché non tentiamo di privare gli altri del loro o di ostacolare i loro sforzi per ottenerlo. (...) L'umanità guadagna di più lasciando che ciascuno viva come ritiene opportuno piuttosto che costringendolo a vivere come gli altri ritengono giusto (_Sulla libertà_, 1859). +> L'unica libertà che merita questo nome è quella di perseguire il nostro bene a modo nostro, purché non tentiamo di privare gli altri del loro o di ostacolare i loro sforzi per ottenerlo. (...) L'umanità guadagna di più lasciando che ciascuno viva come ritiene opportuno piuttosto che costringendolo a vivere come gli altri ritengono giusto (_[Sulla libertà](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859). ![image](assets/it/072.webp) @@ -1262,6 +1300,8 @@ In altre parole, in una società libera, è necessario stabilire un confine rigo :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville e l'individualismo democratico + Alexis de Tocqueville è stato un acuto osservatore della democrazia e un critico dell'individualismo democratico. ![immagine](assets/it/074.webp) @@ -1341,6 +1381,8 @@ La conclusione di Bastiat: :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### La critica del XIX secolo + Fu durante il XIX secolo che emerse la critica al capitalismo, e in particolare la critica marxista. ![image](assets/it/078.webp) @@ -1372,6 +1414,8 @@ La rivoluzione politica è quindi un'illusione, secondo lui, finché non è acco :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### La risposta della Scuola Austriaca + La Scuola Austriaca di Economia, fondata da Carl Menger alla fine del XIX secolo, si è opposta fin dall'inizio alle teorie di Karl Marx. ![image](assets/it/081.webp) @@ -1425,7 +1469,7 @@ I marxisti credono che il socialismo, un sistema economico in cui i mezzi di pro ![immagine](assets/it/085.webp) -Già nel 1922, nel suo libro _Socialismo,_ Ludwig von Mises dimostrò che il socialismo avrebbe portato a carenze diffuse, poiché i pianificatori centrali non sarebbero stati in grado di effettuare calcoli economici accurati senza il sistema dei prezzi fornito dal mercato. +Già nel 1922, nel suo libro _[Socialismo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises dimostrò che il socialismo avrebbe portato a carenze diffuse, poiché i pianificatori centrali non sarebbero stati in grado di effettuare calcoli economici accurati senza il sistema dei prezzi fornito dal mercato. ## La Strada della Servitù @@ -1433,7 +1477,9 @@ Già nel 1922, nel suo libro _Socialismo,_ Ludwig von Mises dimostrò che il soc :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Allarmato dalla crescita dell'interventismo governativo nelle economie delle democrazie occidentali, Hayek scrisse _La Strada della servitù_ come critica filosofica del collettivismo, sia di destra che di sinistra. Pubblicato in diversi milioni di copie, grazie al _Reader’s Digest_, questo libro ha contribuito enormemente alla fama di Hayek negli Stati Uniti. +### L'avvertimento di Hayek contro il collettivismo + +Allarmato dalla crescita dell'interventismo governativo nelle economie delle democrazie occidentali, Hayek scrisse _[La Strada della servitù](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ come critica filosofica del collettivismo, sia di destra che di sinistra. Pubblicato in diversi milioni di copie, grazie al _Reader’s Digest_, questo libro ha contribuito enormemente alla fama di Hayek negli Stati Uniti. ![immagine](assets/it/086.webp) @@ -1478,13 +1524,15 @@ In conclusione, Hayek invita i suoi contemporanei a voltare le spalle alla "foll :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### La rivoluzione keynesiana + Il capitalismo è spesso accusato di essere la fonte dell'iniziativa: "dobbiamo sempre produrre di più", o della formula: "consumare è buono per la crescita". Tuttavia, queste idee non derivano dal capitalismo tradizionale, ma dal Keynesismo, che ha dominato il campo della scienza economica e la classe politica dagli anni '30. ![image](assets/it/088.webp) ### L'Analisi della Crisi del 1929 -Pubblicato nel 1936, il libro di John Maynard Keynes: _La teoria generale dell'occupazione, dell'interesse e della moneta_, ha spazzato via tutto sul suo cammino. Interrogandosi sulle cause della Grande Depressione e sui mezzi per uscirne, descrive un nuovo paradigma economico, che avrebbe convertito generazioni di economisti e politici. +Pubblicato nel 1936, il libro di John Maynard Keynes: _[La teoria generale dell'occupazione, dell'interesse e della moneta](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, ha spazzato via tutto sul suo cammino. Interrogandosi sulle cause della Grande Depressione e sui mezzi per uscirne, descrive un nuovo paradigma economico, che avrebbe convertito generazioni di economisti e politici. ![image](assets/it/089.webp) @@ -1524,7 +1572,7 @@ A partire dal 1958, una politica di risanamento dell'economia francese, ispirata ![image](assets/it/094.webp) -Nel _Peccato Monetario dell'Occidente_, nel 1971, Rueff scrive: +Nel _[Peccato Monetario dell'Occidente](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, nel 1971, Rueff scrive: > È attraverso il deficit di bilancio che gli uomini perdono la loro libertà. @@ -1541,6 +1589,8 @@ Nessuna religione si è diffusa nel mondo così rapidamente come quella dell'occ :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Denaro e civiltà + Il denaro è uno strumento che ha permesso agli esseri umani di andare oltre il baratto, di risparmiare e di coordinarsi su larga scala attraverso il mercato. Ha reso possibile la specializzazione del lavoro, i vantaggi comparativi, i guadagni dal commercio e il calcolo economico. Senza denaro, non ci sarebbe civiltà moderna. ### L'Oro come Standard Globale @@ -1585,7 +1635,7 @@ Nel febbraio 1965, durante una conferenza stampa televisiva, il Generale de Gaul ### Un mercato monetario senza monopolio statale è possibile -Nel 1976, Hayek propose un'alternativa al monopolio dello Stato sulla creazione di moneta: la concorrenza tra valute. Nel suo libro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_La denazionalizzazione del denaro_), immaginava un mercato monetario senza monopolio statale in cui esistessero diverse valute private. La creazione e la gestione di diverse valute da parte di entità private permetterebbe agli individui di scegliere la valuta più stabile e affidabile, incoraggiando così la concorrenza e la disciplina tra gli emittenti. +Nel 1976, Hayek propose un'alternativa al monopolio dello Stato sulla creazione di moneta: la concorrenza tra valute. Nel suo libro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[La denazionalizzazione del denaro](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), immaginava un mercato monetario senza monopolio statale in cui esistessero diverse valute private. La creazione e la gestione di diverse valute da parte di entità private permetterebbe agli individui di scegliere la valuta più stabile e affidabile, incoraggiando così la concorrenza e la disciplina tra gli emittenti. ![immagine](assets/it/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/ja.md b/courses/phi101/ja.md index b706a7a65bd..0a39f558f1b 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/ja.md +++ b/courses/phi101/ja.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### コースの紹介 + PHI101コースへようこそ！ このコースは、自由の歴史的な進化を探求することを目的とし、それを形作った主要な思想の流れを分析するものです。自由という概念が、いかにして権力との対立や協力を通じて、何世紀にもわたって構築されてきたのかを学びます。この旅は、古代から現代の議論までを網羅しています。 @@ -55,9 +57,11 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### なぜ自由の歴史を学ぶのか？ + なぜこのコースを自由の歴史と題するのか？それは、アイデアと出来事の関係を理解することで、私たちの時代をより良く判断し、洞察力を持って行動するためです。過去には、自由とは何か、そしてなぜそれを大切にすべきかの理解のための要素が見つかります。 -> 過去がもはや未来を照らさないとき、精神は暗闇の中を歩む (Alexis de Tocqueville - _アメリカの民主政治_.) +> 過去がもはや未来を照らさないとき、精神は暗闇の中を歩む (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[アメリカの民主政治](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/ja/001.webp) @@ -106,7 +110,7 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ ![image](assets/ja/007.webp) -> 「人々の設立を敢えて試みる者は、いわば人間の性質を変え、自身が完璧で孤立した全体である各個人を、この個人がある意味で自分の生命と存在を受け取るより大きな全体の一部に変えることができると感じなければならない」とルソーは言います。（_社会契約_） +> 「人々の設立を敢えて試みる者は、いわば人間の性質を変え、自身が完璧で孤立した全体である各個人を、この個人がある意味で自分の生命と存在を受け取るより大きな全体の一部に変えることができると感じなければならない」とルソーは言います。（_[社会契約](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_） この観点から、立法者の使命は、良いと判断される場合には、組織化し、変更し、さらには財産を廃止することです。ルソーにとって、財産は自然なものではなく、社会自体と同様に慣習的なものです。次に、ロベスピエールは「財産は、法律によって保証された物品の一部を楽しんで処分するすべての市民の権利である」という原則を確立します。財産に対する自然権は存在せず、無限の数の可能性と偶発的な配置のみが存在します。 @@ -115,6 +119,8 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### 摂理的立法者の神話 + 教科書を開くと、バスティアは指摘しています、人類は力の介入なしには無に等しい運命にあると学ぶことになります： > 「哲学、政治、歴史の本をほとんど無作為に開いてみるだけで、我が国に根深く存在するこの考え、古典研究から生まれ、社会主義の母となったこの考え、すなわち人類は力から生命、組織、道徳、富を受け取る不活性な物質であり、またはさらに悪いことに、人類自体がその退化に向かっており、立法者の神秘的な手によってのみこの傾斜を止められるという考えがどれほど深く根付いているかを見ることができます。」([_法_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html))。 @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### 勝者によって書かれた歴史 + よく知られているように、歴史は勝者によって書かれます。しばしば、権力の征服、権力を持つ指導者の生活、そして彼らをその場所に取って代わろうとする者たちとの対立に焦点が当てられます。 ![image](assets/ja/010.webp) @@ -213,6 +221,8 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### 社会主義的な歴史観 + しかし、歴史には別の視点も存在する。それはかなり成功しており、長い間西洋の知識人やグローバルサウスの代表者から支持を受けてきた。それは社会主義とマルクス主義の歴史観である。 ![image](assets/ja/013.webp) @@ -230,7 +240,7 @@ PHI101コースへようこそ！ この分析は、剰余価値と経済生活の協力的かつダイナミックな性質の誤解を反映しています。実際、起業家が受け取る利益は、彼らが負うリスクに対する報酬であり、労働者や従業員は奴隷ではありません。競争状況では、彼らは雇用主との契約を受け入れるか拒否することができます。彼らはコストと利益の分析を反映した選択をします。 ### 産業革命に関する疑問 -実際、マルクス主義の分析は産業革命の歴史的現実を歪めています。ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ミーゼスは、彼の経済学論文[_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm)（特に[Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)という章を参照）および[_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)というタイトルの一連の講義でこの問題を明らかにしました。（また、反資本主義的なメンタリティについては[こちら](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)と[こちら](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)も読む価値があります）。 +実際、マルクス主義の分析は産業革命の歴史的現実を歪めています。ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ミーゼスは、彼の経済学論文[_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)（特に[Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)という章を参照）および[_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)というタイトルの一連の講義でこの問題を明らかにしました。（また、反資本主義的なメンタリティについては[こちら](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)と[こちら](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)も読む価値があります）。 ![image](assets/ja/014.webp) ミーゼスは、工場での仕事が当時の基準では惨めなものであったとしても、当時の労働者にとって最良の機会を代表していたことを説明しています。 @@ -279,7 +289,9 @@ _Human Action_からの抜粋を読んでみましょう： :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -_国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’anatomie de l’Etat_として翻訳された）の最終章で、マレー・ロスバードは歴史の理論を提案しています。この非常に短い章は、「歴史、国家権力と社会権力の間の競争」と題されています。ロスバードによると、歴史は、二つの基本原則の間の永遠の対立として理解することができます： +### 国家権力対社会権力 + +_[国家の解剖](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’anatomie de l’Etat_として翻訳された）の最終章で、マレー・ロスバードは歴史の理論を提案しています。この非常に短い章は、「歴史、国家権力と社会権力の間の競争」と題されています。ロスバードによると、歴史は、二つの基本原則の間の永遠の対立として理解することができます： ![image](assets/ja/017.webp) @@ -314,7 +326,7 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana 17世紀から19世紀にかけて、多くの西洋諸国では社会的権力の加速とそれに伴う自由、平和、物質的な幸福の増加の時期がありました。しかし、ロスバードは20世紀が国家権力の復活によって特徴づけられ、奴隷制、戦争、破壊の増加という深刻な結果をもたらしたことを思い出させます： > この世紀において、人類は再び、国家の悪性の支配に直面しています。国家は今や、人間の創造力を没収し、自己の目的のために歪めた武器を持っています。 -自由な社会とは何でしょうか？それは独占のない社会です。政治哲学の作品である『自由の倫理』(1982年)において、ロスバードは次のように答えています："個人の人格や財産に対する強制的な侵害の法的な可能性がない社会です。"これが、彼によれば、正義の社会の原則を定義しなければならない政治哲学が、ただ一つの質問に帰結する理由です："誰が何を正当に所有しているのか？" +自由な社会とは何でしょうか？それは独占のない社会です。政治哲学の作品である『[自由の倫理](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)』(1982年)において、ロスバードは次のように答えています："個人の人格や財産に対する強制的な侵害の法的な可能性がない社会です。"これが、彼によれば、正義の社会の原則を定義しなければならない政治哲学が、ただ一つの質問に帰結する理由です："誰が何を正当に所有しているのか？" ![image](assets/ja/019.webp) @@ -334,6 +346,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### アテナイ民主主義の遺産 + アテナイ民主主義の経験は、政治思想の歴史に永続的な影響を与え、今日の世界における民主主義と市民参加の理想に触発を与え続けています。 ![image](assets/ja/020.webp) @@ -430,6 +444,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### コスモポリタンな帝国 + ローマ帝国は広大なコスモポリタンな実体でした。その全盛期には、紀元117年頃、それは広大な多民族・多言語国家でした： - 西では、グレートブリテン（現在のイングランド）からスペインを経て、ガリア（現在のフランス）やアフリカの北部にまで及びました。 @@ -530,6 +546,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### 衰退と崩壊 + なぜローマは衰退し、最終的に滅びたのでしょうか？多くの人が考えるに、ローマ帝国は突然、蛮族の侵入の影響で崩壊したと思いがちです。しかし、ローマ帝国の崩壊の原因は、はるか以前、帝国主義や経済および通貨の指令主義に見出されます。 @@ -603,6 +621,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### 個人の自由のキリスト教的起源 + キリスト教の自由の考えは、4世紀の聖アウグスティヌスの中世神学から、13世紀の聖トマス・アクィナスまで発展しました。この考えとは何でしょうか？ ![image](assets/ja/037.webp) @@ -654,6 +674,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### 理性の自律 + 中世において、理性と信仰は真実へのアクセスを巡って競合します。アベラールやアルベルトゥス・マグヌスに続き、13世紀のトマス・アクィナスは、理性の権利と信仰に対するその自律性を擁護することを選びました。 ![image](assets/ja/040.webp) @@ -693,6 +715,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### 神学的-政治的システム + 中世において、教会とキリスト教の君主制は、歴史家が神学的-政治的システムと呼ぶ政治モデルをローマ帝国から受け継ぎました。これは、政治的指導者が宗教的指導者でもある、つまり権力が神聖であるというシステムを意味します。 これが、中世の社会が政治的・宗教的一元主義で特徴づけられる理由です。政治権力はその正当性、権威、そして統一をキリスト教（またはイスラム教）の信仰に基づいています。それは自身を文化的および宗教的正統性の守護者とみなし、この一致から逸脱する者を排斥します。この文脈では、共通の文化的ビジョンから離れる者（例えばユダヤ人）にある程度の寛容が認められるかもしれませんが、彼らに対して多元主義の権利を認めることはできませんでした。中世の終わりにアメリカの征服が行われるまで、教会にとって市民の自由の問題が重要になり、個人の自由を肯定し保護し、多元主義を正当化し、国家による強制を非難する法の哲学が初めて出現しました。 @@ -732,6 +756,8 @@ _国家の解剖_（フランス語版は_Résurgence editions_による_L’ana :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### 神の像として創造された人間 + 古代の思想は、人間を神聖な宇宙、すなわち彼が単なる一部であった完璧な宇宙に従属させました。一方、一神教は、人間が神の像に創造された限りにおいて、自然に対する人間の無限に優れた価値を主張します。この重要な点は、真の倫理的革命の起源にあります。聖書は、各人間の神聖で無限の価値を断言します。 これが、聖書の倫理が私たちの悪との関係を変える理由です。それは人間の苦しみに対して鋭く前例のない感受性をもたらします。したがって、それまで人類が完全に耐えられると考えていた悪、特に他者、弱者、無実者への悪を、異常で耐え難いものとして考えるよう促します。 @@ -769,6 +795,8 @@ _神学大全_で、聖トマスは次のような問いを立てます：神を :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### キリスト教と自由経済 + キリスト教は、世界を改善するために働くという道徳的義務を人々に課していることがわかりました。神は人間が幸せであることを望んでいますが、その善を彼の代わりに達成することは望んでいません。したがって、キリスト教徒には、道徳的悪と戦い、隣人を愛し、被害者を助け、短く言えば、より公正で人間的な世界のために働くことが求められます。つまり、私有財産と契約の自由に基づく自由経済である資本主義は、キリスト教徒の義務と両立するのでしょうか？ 答えの一部は、資本主義がプロテスタント改革よりもずっと前の宗教的文脈で起源を持つという事実にあります。答えのもう一部は、資本主義が個人の物質的および道徳的状態を改善する最良の手段であるという事実を観察することにあります。財産権と自発的な協力に基づく自由経済だけが、人々を持続的に貧困から救い出す能力を持っています。 @@ -835,6 +863,8 @@ _神学大全_で、聖トマスは次のような問いを立てます：神を :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### 宗教戦争と啓蒙時代 + ルネサンスから、ヨーロッパは宗教戦争によって荒廃することになります。したがって、寛容は啓蒙の時代の大きな戦いの一つとなりました。 ![image](assets/ja/050.webp) @@ -871,7 +901,7 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス ### 真実は自由を必要とする -しかし、フランスには偉大な心が欠けていたわけではありません。あまり知られていないが、アンヌ・ロベール・ジャック・テュルゴ、ラウルネ男爵は、ルイ16世の下で財務総監になる前に、まず第一に一流の思想家でした。彼は、アダム・スミスの_国富論_（1776）に先駆けて、政治経済に関する傑作論文、_富の形成と分配に関する省察_（1766）の著者でした。 +しかし、フランスには偉大な心が欠けていたわけではありません。あまり知られていないが、アンヌ・ロベール・ジャック・テュルゴ、ラウルネ男爵は、ルイ16世の下で財務総監になる前に、まず第一に一流の思想家でした。彼は、アダム・スミスの_[国富論](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_（1776）に先駆けて、政治経済に関する傑作論文、_富の形成と分配に関する省察_（1766）の著者でした。 ![image](assets/ja/052.webp) 彼の初期の著作は、啓蒙哲学への彼のコミットメントを反映しています。1754年に、彼は_市民寛容についての手紙_を出版し、1757年には、ディドロとダランベールによる_百科全書_のために書かれたいくつかの記事を発表しました。 @@ -889,6 +919,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### 経済的自由主義の起源 + 経済自由主義はしばしば、アダム・スミスに由来するとされるアングロサクソンの伝統と関連付けられ、フランスの啓蒙主義から発生したとされる「政治的自由主義」と対比されます。この見解は正しくありません。 ![image](assets/ja/053.webp) @@ -954,6 +986,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### 歴史を変えた三つの出来事 + 1776年は、歴史の教科書でしばしば見過ごされがちな年です。しかし、フランス、スコットランド、北アメリカの3つの国では、自由の歴史に消えない痕跡を残すいくつかの出来事があります。 ### トゥルゴーの失脚 @@ -996,7 +1030,7 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス ### アメリカにおける自由のための宣言 -1776年、トーマス・ペインという英国人がアメリカで、英国の君主制を批判し、アメリカの植民地人の独立を主張する痛烈な小冊子「コモン・センス」を発表しました。 +1776年、トーマス・ペインという英国人がアメリカで、英国の君主制を批判し、アメリカの植民地人の独立を主張する痛烈な小冊子「[コモン・センス](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)」を発表しました。 ![image](assets/ja/059.webp) @@ -1055,6 +1089,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### 世俗化と近代社会 + 西洋史におけるこの近代の大きな新しさは、宗教的依存から離れて自己組織化する社会の出現です。これは宗教的信念の消失や神の死を意味するものではありません。しかし、神は私的な問題となり、もはや政治的な事柄と混同されません。宗教の消失ではなく、その指導的役割の退位です。それは個々の信念のシステムとなります。 西洋世界の世俗化は一夜にして起こったわけではありません。それはアイデアによって準備されました。しばしば、哲学は主要な文化的変化の最前線に立っています。 @@ -1137,7 +1173,7 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス ルソーとロベスピエールと共に、フランス人は国家または一般意志が無制限の力を持ち、すべてを正当化すると信じたいと思っていました。人民が統治するという事実から、彼らがすべての権利を持っていると結論付けられました。革命の偉大な原則とそれらを実現するために用いられた手段との間には、明らかに矛盾がありました。 -これは、フリードリヒ・ハイエクが彼の著書 _自由の憲法_ で述べたコメントの意味でもあります： +これは、フリードリヒ・ハイエクが彼の著書 _[自由の憲法](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ で述べたコメントの意味でもあります： > 革命が個人の自由の促進に向けた努力を虚しくした決定的な要因は、すべての権力が人民に委ねられた限り、この権力の乱用に対するすべての予防措置が不要になったという幻想を生み出したことでした。 @@ -1149,6 +1185,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### 古代の自由対近代の自由 + ベンジャミン・コンスタントによれば、現代社会における自由は、古代の社会のように都市の事務への直接参加としてはもはや理解され得ない。 ![image](assets/ja/070.webp) @@ -1157,7 +1195,7 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス 古代では、個人は公共の事務において主権を持っていましたが、すべての私的関係において奴隷でした。個人の自由の犠牲は、政治的権利の使用によって補償されました：主権の様々な部分を直接行使する権利、公共の広場で審議する権利、法律に投票する権利、判決を下す権利、裁判官を評価し判断する権利。これは政治的かつ集団的な自由です： -> 古代人の自由は、集団の力への積極的かつ恒常的な参加にありました。一方、私たちの自由は、私的な独立の平和的な享受にあるべきです。それに従って、私たちは古代人よりも個人の独立により強く固執しなければなりません。（_古代人の自由と近代人の自由の比較_ (1819)） +> 古代人の自由は、集団の力への積極的かつ恒常的な参加にありました。一方、私たちの自由は、私的な独立の平和的な享受にあるべきです。それに従って、私たちは古代人よりも個人の独立により強く固執しなければなりません。（_[古代人の自由と近代人の自由の比較](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)） ![image](assets/ja/071.webp) @@ -1165,7 +1203,7 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス この自由の定義はジョン・スチュアート・ミルによって見出されます： -> 名に値する唯一の自由とは、他人のそれを奪ったり、彼らがそれを得る努力を妨げたりしない限り、私たち自身の善を私たち自身の方法で追求する自由です。（...）人々に自分たちが適切と見るように生きさせることによって、他人に生き方を強制するよりも人類はより多くを得ます。（_自由論_、1859） +> 名に値する唯一の自由とは、他人のそれを奪ったり、彼らがそれを得る努力を妨げたりしない限り、私たち自身の善を私たち自身の方法で追求する自由です。（...）人々に自分たちが適切と見るように生きさせることによって、他人に生き方を強制するよりも人類はより多くを得ます。（_[自由論](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_、1859） ![image](assets/ja/072.webp) @@ -1198,6 +1236,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### トクヴィルと民主主義的個人主義 + アレクシス・ド・トクヴィルは民主主義の鋭い観察者であり、民主的個人主義の批評家でした。 ![image](assets/ja/074.webp) @@ -1270,6 +1310,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19世紀の批判 + 19世紀には、資本主義への批判、特にマルクス主義的批判が登場しました。 ![image](assets/ja/078.webp) @@ -1298,6 +1340,8 @@ _第十の手紙_、"商業について"で、ヴォルテールはフランス :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### オーストリア学派の反論 + 19世紀末にカール・メンガーによって設立されたオーストリア経済学派は、初めからカール・マルクスの理論に反対した。 ![image](assets/ja/081.webp) @@ -1350,14 +1394,16 @@ _自由の倫理_ および _国家の解剖学_ において、マレー・ロ ![image](assets/ja/085.webp) -1922年に、ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ミーゼスは彼の著書『Socialism』において、社会主義は市場によって提供される価格体系なしには、中央計画者が正確な経済計算を行うことができないため、広範な不足につながるだろうと示しました。 +1922年に、ルートヴィヒ・フォン・ミーゼスは彼の著書『[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)』において、社会主義は市場によって提供される価格体系なしには、中央計画者が正確な経済計算を行うことができないため、広範な不足につながるだろうと示しました。 ## 隷属への道 3f92f346-3062-5f76-8c54-3a9075e2b030 :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -西側民主主義国の経済における政府の介入主義の台頭に警鐘を鳴らし、ハイエクは集団主義の哲学的批判として『隷属への道』を執筆しました。_Reader’s Digest_のおかげで数百万部が出版され、この本はハイエクのアメリカでの名声に大きく貢献しました。 +### 集団主義に対するハイエクの警告 + +西側民主主義国の経済における政府の介入主義の台頭に警鐘を鳴らし、ハイエクは集団主義の哲学的批判として『[隷属への道](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)』を執筆しました。_Reader’s Digest_のおかげで数百万部が出版され、この本はハイエクのアメリカでの名声に大きく貢献しました。 ![image](assets/ja/086.webp) @@ -1398,11 +1444,13 @@ _自由の倫理_ および _国家の解剖学_ において、マレー・ロ :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### ケインズ革命 + 資本主義はしばしば、「常にもっと生産しなければならない」という命令や、「消費は成長に良い」という公式の源泉であると非難されます。しかし、これらの考えは伝統的な資本主義から生じたのではなく、1930年代以降、経済科学の分野と政治クラスを支配してきたケインズ主義から生じたものです。 ![image](assets/ja/088.webp) ### 1929年の危機の分析 -1936年に出版されたジョン・メイナード・ケインズの著書『雇用、利子および貨幣の一般理論』は、その道を切り開きました。大恐慌の原因とそれから脱出する手段を問い直し、新しい経済パラダイムを記述し、経済学者や政治家の世代を変えてきました。 +1936年に出版されたジョン・メイナード・ケインズの著書『[雇用、利子および貨幣の一般理論](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)』は、その道を切り開きました。大恐慌の原因とそれから脱出する手段を問い直し、新しい経済パラダイムを記述し、経済学者や政治家の世代を変えてきました。 ![image](assets/ja/089.webp) @@ -1440,7 +1488,7 @@ _自由の倫理_ および _国家の解剖学_ において、マレー・ロ ![image](assets/ja/094.webp) -1971年の『西洋の貨幣的罪』で、ルエフは次のように書いています： +1971年の『[西洋の貨幣的罪](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)』で、ルエフは次のように書いています： > 予算赤字を通じて、人々は自由を失います。 @@ -1456,6 +1504,8 @@ _自由の倫理_ および _国家の解剖学_ において、マレー・ロ :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### 貨幣と文明 + お金は、人類が物々交換を超えて進化し、貯蓄し、市場を通じて大規模に協調することを可能にしたツールです。それは労働の専門化、比較優位、貿易からの利益、経済計算を可能にしました。お金がなければ、現代文明は存在しません。 ### 世界標準としての金 @@ -1500,7 +1550,7 @@ _自由の倫理_ および _国家の解剖学_ において、マレー・ロ ### 国家独占のない通貨市場は可能です -1976年、ハイエクは国家による通貨創造の独占に対する代替案を提案しました：通貨間の競争。彼の著書、_Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_（_The Denationalization of Money_）で、彼は国家独占のない通貨市場を想像し、複数の民間通貨が存在することを提案しました。異なる通貨の創造と管理を民間の実体が行うことで、個人は最も安定して信頼できる通貨を選ぶことができ、これにより発行者間の競争と規律を促進することができます。 +1976年、ハイエクは国家による通貨創造の独占に対する代替案を提案しました：通貨間の競争。彼の著書、_Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_（_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_）で、彼は国家独占のない通貨市場を想像し、複数の民間通貨が存在することを提案しました。異なる通貨の創造と管理を民間の実体が行うことで、個人は最も安定して信頼できる通貨を選ぶことができ、これにより発行者間の競争と規律を促進することができます。 ![image](assets/ja/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/ko.md b/courses/phi101/ko.md index 9c9024b0a90..ca8c454c7b2 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/ko.md +++ b/courses/phi101/ko.md @@ -27,6 +27,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### 강좌 소개 + PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! @@ -80,10 +82,12 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### 자유의 역사를 왜 공부하는가? + 이 강좌의 제목을 왜 정했나요? 왜 '자유의 역사'인가요? 우리 시대를 보다 효과적으로 판단하고 분별력 있게 행동하기 위해서는 사상과 사건 사이의 관계를 이해해야 하기 때문입니다. 자유가 무엇인지, 왜 우리가 자유를 소중히 여겨야 하는지 더 잘 이해하기 위해서는 과거에 대한 이해가 필요합니다. -> 과거가 더 이상 미래를 비추지 않을 때, 영혼은 어둠 속을 걷는다(알렉시스 드 토크빌 - _미국의 민주주의_). +> 과거가 더 이상 미래를 비추지 않을 때, 영혼은 어둠 속을 걷는다(알렉시스 드 토크빌 - _[미국의 민주주의](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/ko/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +163,7 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! ![image](assets/ko/007.webp) -> "루소는 "감히 민족을 세우려는 사람은 말하자면 인간의 본성을 변화시킬 수 있어야 하며, 그 자체로 완벽하고 고독한 전체인 각 개인을 이 개인이 어떤 식으로든 자신의 삶과 존재를 받는 더 큰 전체의 일부로 변화시킬 수 있어야 한다"고 말합니다 (_사회 계약_) +> "루소는 "감히 민족을 세우려는 사람은 말하자면 인간의 본성을 변화시킬 수 있어야 하며, 그 자체로 완벽하고 고독한 전체인 각 개인을 이 개인이 어떤 식으로든 자신의 삶과 존재를 받는 더 큰 전체의 일부로 변화시킬 수 있어야 한다"고 말합니다 (_[사회 계약](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) 이러한 관점에서 입법자의 임무는 필요하다고 판단되는 경우 재산을 정리, 수정 또는 폐지하는 것입니다. 루소에게 재산은 자연적인 것이 아니라 사회 자체와 마찬가지로 관습적인 것입니다. 이에 따라 로베스피에르는 "재산은 모든 시민이 법으로 보장된 재화의 일부를 향유하고 처분할 수 있는 권리"라는 원칙을 확립합니다 재산에 대한 천부적 권리는 존재하지 않으며, 단지 무한한 수의 가능한 우발적 계약이 존재할 뿐입니다. @@ -172,6 +176,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### 섭리적 입법자라는 신화 + 바스티앗은 교과서를 펼치면 권력의 개입 없이는 인류가 공멸할 것이라는 사실을 알게 된다고 지적합니다: @@ -254,6 +260,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### 승자가 쓴 역사 + 승자가 역사를 쓴다는 것은 잘 알려진 사실입니다. 권력의 정복, 권력자의 삶, 그리고 그 자리를 차지하려는 이들과 반대하는 사람들의 갈등에 대한 관심은 종종 집중됩니다. @@ -316,6 +324,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### 사회주의적 역사관 + 그러나 역사에 대한 또 다른 관점도 존재합니다. 이 관점은 꽤 성공적이었으며 오랫동안 서구 지식인들과 글로벌 사우스 대표들의 지지를 받아왔습니다. 이것이 바로 사회주의 및 마르크스주의 역사관입니다. ![image](assets/ko/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +354,7 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! ### 문제의 산업 혁명 -사실 마르크스주의적 분석은 산업혁명의 역사적 현실을 왜곡합니다. 루트비히 폰 미제스는 [_인간의 행동_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm)(특히 [산업혁명에 대한 대중적 해석](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2))이라는 제목의 경제학 논문과 [_경제 정책: 오늘과 내일을 위한 생각_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)이라는 제목의 강연 시리즈에서 이 문제를 명확히 설명했습니다. (<반자본주의 정신>(https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)과 <반자본주의 정신>(http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)도 읽어볼 만합니다. +사실 마르크스주의적 분석은 산업혁명의 역사적 현실을 왜곡합니다. 루트비히 폰 미제스는 [_인간의 행동_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)(특히 [산업혁명에 대한 대중적 해석](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2))이라는 제목의 경제학 논문과 [_경제 정책: 오늘과 내일을 위한 생각_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)이라는 제목의 강연 시리즈에서 이 문제를 명확히 설명했습니다. (<반자본주의 정신>(https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)과 <반자본주의 정신>(http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)도 읽어볼 만합니다. ![image](assets/ko/014.webp) @@ -415,7 +425,9 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -국가 해부학』(프랑스어로는 『L'anatomie de l'Etat』, 리서전스 에디션)의 마지막 장에서 머레이 로스바드는 역사 이론을 제안합니다. 이 아주 짧은 장의 제목은 '역사: 국가 권력과 사회 권력 사이의 경쟁'이라는 제목이 붙어 있습니다 로스바드에 따르면 역사는 두 가지 기본 원칙 사이의 끊임없는 갈등으로 이해될 수 있습니다: +### 국가 권력 대 사회 권력 + +[국가 해부학](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)』(프랑스어로는 『L'anatomie de l'Etat』, 리서전스 에디션)의 마지막 장에서 머레이 로스바드는 역사 이론을 제안합니다. 이 아주 짧은 장의 제목은 '역사: 국가 권력과 사회 권력 사이의 경쟁'이라는 제목이 붙어 있습니다 로스바드에 따르면 역사는 두 가지 기본 원칙 사이의 끊임없는 갈등으로 이해될 수 있습니다: ![image](assets/ko/017.webp) @@ -471,7 +483,7 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! > 이 세기 동안 인류는 다시 한 번 국가의 사악한 통치, 즉 인간의 창조적 힘으로 무장한 국가가 그 목적을 위해 몰수하고 왜곡하는 것에 직면하게 됩니다. -> 그렇다면 자유 사회란 무엇일까요? 그것은 독점이 없는 사회입니다. 정치철학 저서인 <자유의 윤리>(1982)에서 로스바드는 이렇게 답합니다: "어떤 개인의 인격이나 재산에 대한 강압적 침략이 법적으로 불가능하게 되는 사회"라고 그렇기 때문에 정의로운 사회의 원칙을 정의해야 하는 정치철학은 한 가지 질문으로 귀결된다고 그는 말합니다: "누가 무엇을 합법적으로 소유하는가?" +> 그렇다면 자유 사회란 무엇일까요? 그것은 독점이 없는 사회입니다. 정치철학 저서인 <[자유의 윤리](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)>(1982)에서 로스바드는 이렇게 답합니다: "어떤 개인의 인격이나 재산에 대한 강압적 침략이 법적으로 불가능하게 되는 사회"라고 그렇기 때문에 정의로운 사회의 원칙을 정의해야 하는 정치철학은 한 가지 질문으로 귀결된다고 그는 말합니다: "누가 무엇을 합법적으로 소유하는가?" > ![이미지](assets/ko/019.webp) @@ -500,6 +512,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### 아테네 민주주의의 유산 + 아테네 민주주의의 경험은 정치 사상의 역사에 지속적인 흔적을 남겼으며 오늘날에도 민주주의와 시민 참여의 이상에 영감을 불어넣고 있습니다. @@ -640,6 +654,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### 세계시민적 제국 + 로마 제국은 광대하고 국제적인 실체였습니다. 전성기였던 서기 117년경에는 다민족, 다언어를 사용하는 거대한 국가였습니다: @@ -794,6 +810,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### 쇠퇴와 붕괴 + 로마는 왜 쇠퇴하고 결국 멸망했을까요? 많은 사람들이 로마 제국이 야만족의 침략으로 갑자기 무너졌다고 생각하곤 합니다. 하지만 로마 제국 붕괴의 원인은 훨씬 이전인 제국주의와 경제 및 금본위제에서 찾을 수 있습니다. @@ -906,6 +924,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### 개인 자유의 기독교적 뿌리 + 기독교의 자유 개념은 4세기 성 어거스틴부터 13세기 성 토마스 아퀴나스에 이르기까지 중세 신학에서 발전했습니다. 이 개념은 무엇일까요? @@ -983,6 +1003,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### 이성의 자율성 + 중세 시대에는 이성과 신앙이 진리에 접근하기 위해 경쟁했습니다. 13세기 아벨라르와 알베르트 대왕에 이어 토마스 아퀴나스는 신앙과 관련하여 이성의 자율성을 옹호하는 쪽을 선택했습니다. @@ -1044,6 +1066,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### 신정 정치 체제 + 중세에 교회와 기독교 군주제는 로마 제국으로부터 신정 정치 체제, 즉 권력을 신성한 것으로 간주하여 정치 지도자가 종교 지도자이기도 한 정치 모델을 물려받았습니다. @@ -1102,6 +1126,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### 하나님의 형상대로 창조된 인간 + 고대 사상은 인간을 신성한 우주, 즉 완전한 우주의 일부분에 불과한 존재로 종속시켰습니다. 반면 일신론은 인간이 하나님의 형상대로 창조되었다는 점에서 인간이 자연보다 무한히 우월한 가치를 지니고 있다고 주장합니다. 이 중요한 지점이 진정한 윤리적 혁명의 출발점입니다. 성경은 인간 개개인의 신성하고 무한한 가치를 긍정합니다. @@ -1158,6 +1184,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### 기독교와 자유 경제 + 우리는 기독교가 사람들에게 세상을 개선하기 위해 노력해야 할 도덕적 의무를 부과한다는 것을 보았습니다. 하나님은 인간이 행복하기를 원하시지만, 그 대신 자신의 선을 이루기를 원하시지는 않습니다. 그러므로 도덕적 악과 싸우고, 이웃을 사랑하고, 희생자를 돕는 것, 즉 더 정의롭고 인간적인 세상을 위해 일하는 것은 그리스도인의 몫입니다. 자본주의, 즉 사유재산과 계약의 자유에 기반한 자유 경제는 그리스도인의 의무와 양립할 수 있을까요? @@ -1249,6 +1277,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### 종교 전쟁과 계몽주의 + 르네상스 시대부터 유럽은 종교 전쟁으로 황폐화되었습니다. 따라서 관용은 계몽주의의 위대한 전투 중 하나가 되었습니다. ![image](assets/ko/050.webp) @@ -1306,7 +1336,7 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! ### 진실에는 자유가 필요합니다 -하지만 프랑스에는 위대한 지성이 부족하지 않았습니다. 잘 알려지지 않았지만 앤 로베르 자크 투르고 남작 드 라울느는 루이 16세의 재무장관이 되기 전 최고의 사상가였습니다. 그는 아담 스미스의 <국부론>(1776)보다 앞선 정치경제학에 관한 저서인 <부의 형성과 분배에 관한 고찰>(1766)의 저자이기도 합니다. +하지만 프랑스에는 위대한 지성이 부족하지 않았습니다. 잘 알려지지 않았지만 앤 로베르 자크 투르고 남작 드 라울느는 루이 16세의 재무장관이 되기 전 최고의 사상가였습니다. 그는 아담 스미스의 <[국부론](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)>(1776)보다 앞선 정치경제학에 관한 저서인 <부의 형성과 분배에 관한 고찰>(1766)의 저자이기도 합니다. ![image](assets/ko/052.webp) @@ -1335,6 +1365,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### 경제적 자유주의의 기원 + 경제적 자유주의는 종종 아담 스미스로부터 비롯된 앵글로색슨 전통과 관련이 있습니다. 이는 특히 프랑스에서 대륙 계몽주의에서 비롯된 것으로 알려진 '정치적 자유주의'와 대조됩니다. 이 견해는 잘못된 것입니다. @@ -1433,6 +1465,8 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### 역사를 바꾼 세 가지 사건 + 1776년은 역사 교과서에서 종종 주목받지 못하는 해입니다. 하지만 프랑스, 스코틀랜드, 북미의 세 나라에서는 자유의 역사에 지울 수 없는 흔적을 남긴 몇 가지 사건이 일어납니다. @@ -1492,7 +1526,7 @@ PHI101에 오신 것을 환영합니다! ### 미국의 자유를 위한 선언문 -1776년 토마스 페인이라는 영국인이 미국에서 영국 군주제를 비판하고 미국 식민지 주민의 독립을 옹호하는 '상식'이라는 제목의 격렬한 팸플릿을 출판했습니다. +1776년 토마스 페인이라는 영국인이 미국에서 영국 군주제를 비판하고 미국 식민지 주민의 독립을 옹호하는 '[상식](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)'이라는 제목의 격렬한 팸플릿을 출판했습니다. ![image](assets/ko/059.webp) @@ -1581,6 +1615,8 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### 세속화와 근대 사회 + 서양 역사에서 이 근대 시기의 가장 큰 참신함은 종교적 의존에서 벗어나 스스로를 조직하는 사회의 출현입니다. 이것은 종교적 믿음의 소멸이나 신의 죽음을 의미하지는 않습니다. 그러나 신은 더 이상 정치 문제와 섞이지 않는 사적인 문제가 되었습니다. 종교가 사라지는 것이 아니라 종교의 지도적 역할이 사라지는 것입니다. 종교는 개인의 신념 체계가 됩니다. @@ -1705,7 +1741,7 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: 루소와 로베스피에르와 함께 프랑스인들은 국가 또는 일반 의지가 무한한 힘을 가지고 있으며 모든 행동을 정당화한다고 믿으려 했습니다. 국민이 통치한다는 사실에서 모든 권리가 국민에게 있다는 결론을 내렸습니다. 혁명의 위대한 원칙과 혁명의 승리를 위해 사용된 수단 사이에는 분명히 모순이 있었습니다. -이는 프리드리히 하이에크가 그의 저서 <자유의 헌법>에서 한 발언의 의미이기도 합니다: +이는 프리드리히 하이에크가 그의 저서 <[자유의 헌법](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)>에서 한 발언의 의미이기도 합니다: > 개인의 자유 증진을 위한 혁명의 노력을 헛되게 만든 결정적인 요인은 모든 권력이 국민에게 이양된 이상, 권력의 남용에 대한 모든 예방책이 불필요해졌다는 착각을 불러일으켰다는 점입니다. @@ -1724,6 +1760,8 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### 고대의 자유 대 근대의 자유 + 벤자민 콘스탄트에 따르면 현대 사회에서의 자유는 더 이상 고대 문화의 방식, 즉 도시 문제에 직접 참여하는 것으로 이해할 수 없습니다. @@ -1736,7 +1774,7 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: 고대에 개인은 공적인 문제에서는 주권자이지만 모든 사적인 관계에서는 노예였습니다. 정치적 권리의 사용은 개인의 자유의 희생에 대한 보상으로 주권의 다양한 측면을 직접 행사하고, 광장에서 심의하고, 법률에 투표하고, 판결을 선고하고, 법관을 평가하고 심판할 수 있는 권리입니다. 이는 정치적 자유이자 집단적 자유입니다: -> 고대인의 자유는 집단 권력에 대한 적극적이고 지속적인 참여로 이루어졌습니다. 반면에 우리의 자유는 사적 독립을 평화롭게 누리는 것으로 구성되어야 하며, 따라서 우리는 고대인들보다 훨씬 더 독립에 애착을 가져야 합니다. (_고대인의 자유와 현대인의 자유 비교_(1819)) +> 고대인의 자유는 집단 권력에 대한 적극적이고 지속적인 참여로 이루어졌습니다. 반면에 우리의 자유는 사적 독립을 평화롭게 누리는 것으로 구성되어야 하며, 따라서 우리는 고대인들보다 훨씬 더 독립에 애착을 가져야 합니다. (_[고대인의 자유와 현대인의 자유 비교](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_(1819)) ![image](assets/ko/071.webp) @@ -1747,7 +1785,7 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: 자유에 대한 이러한 정의는 존 스튜어트 밀에서 찾을 수 있습니다: -> 자유라는 이름을 붙일 만한 유일한 자유는 다른 사람의 자유를 빼앗거나 그것을 얻기 위한 노력을 방해하지 않는 한, 우리의 방식대로 우리의 선을 추구하는 자유입니다. (...) 인류는 다른 사람들이 선하다고 생각하는 대로 살도록 강요하는 것보다 각자가 적합하다고 생각하는 대로 살도록 내버려두는 것이 더 많은 것을 얻는다. (_자유에 대하여_, 1859) +> 자유라는 이름을 붙일 만한 유일한 자유는 다른 사람의 자유를 빼앗거나 그것을 얻기 위한 노력을 방해하지 않는 한, 우리의 방식대로 우리의 선을 추구하는 자유입니다. (...) 인류는 다른 사람들이 선하다고 생각하는 대로 살도록 강요하는 것보다 각자가 적합하다고 생각하는 대로 살도록 내버려두는 것이 더 많은 것을 얻는다. (_[자유에 대하여](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/ko/072.webp) @@ -1798,6 +1836,8 @@ Paine은 이렇게 주장합니다: :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### 토크빌과 민주주의적 개인주의 + 알렉시스 드 토크빌은 민주주의에 대한 예리한 관찰자이자 민주주의적 개인주의에 대한 비판자였습니다. @@ -1909,6 +1949,8 @@ Bastiat의 결론: :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19세기의 비판 + 자본주의에 대한 비판, 특히 마르크스주의 비판이 등장한 것은 19세기였습니다. @@ -1955,6 +1997,8 @@ Bastiat의 결론: :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### 오스트리아 학파의 대응 + 19세기 말 칼 멩거가 설립한 오스트리아 경제학파는 처음부터 칼 마르크스의 이론에 반대했습니다. @@ -2037,7 +2081,7 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: ![image](assets/ko/085.webp) -1922년 일찍이 루트비히 폰 미제스는 그의 저서 <사회주의>에서 사회주의는 중앙 계획가들이 시장이 제공하는 가격 시스템 없이는 정확한 경제 계산을 할 수 없기 때문에 광범위한 결핍을 초래할 것이라고 주장했습니다. +1922년 일찍이 루트비히 폰 미제스는 그의 저서 <[사회주의](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)>에서 사회주의는 중앙 계획가들이 시장이 제공하는 가격 시스템 없이는 정확한 경제 계산을 할 수 없기 때문에 광범위한 결핍을 초래할 것이라고 주장했습니다. ## 농노로 가는 길 @@ -2048,7 +2092,9 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -하이에크는 서구 민주주의 국가 경제에서 정부 개입주의가 부상하는 것에 우려를 표하며 우파든 좌파든 집단주의에 대한 철학적 비판으로 _노예로 가는 길_을 썼습니다. 이 책은 _리더스 다이제스트_에 힘입어 수백만 부가 출간되었으며, 미국에서 하이에크의 명성을 높이는 데 크게 기여했습니다. +### 집단주의에 대한 하이에크의 경고 + +하이에크는 서구 민주주의 국가 경제에서 정부 개입주의가 부상하는 것에 우려를 표하며 우파든 좌파든 집단주의에 대한 철학적 비판으로 _[노예로 가는 길](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_을 썼습니다. 이 책은 _리더스 다이제스트_에 힘입어 수백만 부가 출간되었으며, 미국에서 하이에크의 명성을 높이는 데 크게 기여했습니다. ![image](assets/ko/086.webp) @@ -2111,6 +2157,8 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### 케인즈주의 혁명 + 자본주의는 종종 이 명령의 근원이라는 비난을 받곤 합니다: "우리는 항상 더 많이 생산해야 한다." 또는 "소비는 성장에 도움이 된다."라는 공식의 근원이라는 비난을 받곤 합니다: "소비는 성장에 도움이 된다."라는 공식의 근원입니다 그러나 이러한 생각은 전통적인 자본주의가 아니라 1930년대 이후 경제학 분야와 정치 계급을 지배해 온 케인즈주의에서 비롯된 것입니다. @@ -2120,7 +2168,7 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: ### 1929년 위기 분석 -1936년에 출간된 존 메이너드 케인스의 저서 <고용, 이자, 화폐의 일반이론>은 모든 것을 휩쓸었습니다. 대공황의 원인과 대공황에서 벗어날 수 있는 방법에 대해 의문을 제기한 그는 새로운 경제 패러다임을 설명하며 여러 세대의 경제학자와 정치가들을 변화시켰습니다. +1936년에 출간된 존 메이너드 케인스의 저서 <[고용, 이자, 화폐의 일반이론](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)>은 모든 것을 휩쓸었습니다. 대공황의 원인과 대공황에서 벗어날 수 있는 방법에 대해 의문을 제기한 그는 새로운 경제 패러다임을 설명하며 여러 세대의 경제학자와 정치가들을 변화시켰습니다. ![image](assets/ko/089.webp) @@ -2182,7 +2230,7 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: ![image](assets/ko/094.webp) -1971년, 루에프는 <서구의 화폐 죄악>에서 이렇게 썼습니다: +1971년, 루에프는 <[서구의 화폐 죄악](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)>에서 이렇게 썼습니다: > 예산 부족으로 인해 사람들이 자유를 잃는 것은 바로 이 때문입니다. @@ -2206,6 +2254,8 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### 화폐와 문명 + 화폐는 인류가 물물교환을 넘어 시장을 통해 대규모로 저축하고 협동할 수 있게 해준 도구입니다. 화폐는 노동의 전문화, 비교 우위, 무역을 통한 이익, 경제적 계산을 가능하게 했습니다. 돈이 없었다면 현대 문명은 존재하지 않았을 것입니다. @@ -2267,7 +2317,7 @@ Mises는 이렇게 씁니다: ### 국가 독점 없는 화폐 시장이 가능합니다 -1976년 하이에크는 국가의 화폐 발행 독점에 대한 대안으로 통화 간 경쟁을 제안했습니다. 그는 저서 <화폐의 진정한 합의를 위하여>(_화폐의 탈국유화_)에서 국가가 독점하지 않고 여러 민간 화폐가 공존하는 통화 시장을 구상했습니다. 민간 주체가 다양한 통화를 만들고 관리하면 개인이 가장 안정적이고 신뢰할 수 있는 통화를 선택할 수 있어 발행자 간의 경쟁과 규율을 장려할 수 있을 것입니다. +1976년 하이에크는 국가의 화폐 발행 독점에 대한 대안으로 통화 간 경쟁을 제안했습니다. 그는 저서 <화폐의 진정한 합의를 위하여>(_[화폐의 탈국유화](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_)에서 국가가 독점하지 않고 여러 민간 화폐가 공존하는 통화 시장을 구상했습니다. 민간 주체가 다양한 통화를 만들고 관리하면 개인이 가장 안정적이고 신뢰할 수 있는 통화를 선택할 수 있어 발행자 간의 경쟁과 규율을 장려할 수 있을 것입니다. ![image](assets/ko/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/nb-NO.md b/courses/phi101/nb-NO.md index 8c41f90a0bd..f9203e23796 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/nb-NO.md +++ b/courses/phi101/nb-NO.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Fra antikken gjennom opplysningstiden steg friheten frem ettersom samfunn omfavn :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introduksjon til kurset + Velkommen til kurset PHI101! Dette kurset inviterer deg til å utforske frihetens utvikling gjennom historien ved å analysere de store tankeretningene som har formet den. Du vil oppdage hvordan frihetsbegrepet har blitt konstruert gjennom århundrene, enten i opposisjon til eller i samarbeid med makt, gjennom en historisk reise fra antikken til dagens debatter. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Klar til å begi deg ut på denne unike filosofiske reisen for å utforske frihe :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Hvorfor studere frihetens historie? + Hvorfor gi dette kurset tittelen: en historie om frihet? Fordi vi trenger å forstå forholdet mellom ideer og hendelser, for å bedre bedømme vår tid og handle med skjønn. Det er i fortiden vi finner elementene for en bedre forståelse av hva frihet er og grunnene til at vi må verdsette den. -> Når fortiden ikke lenger opplyser fremtiden, vandrer ånden i mørket (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokrati i Amerika_.) +> Når fortiden ikke lenger opplyser fremtiden, vandrer ånden i mørket (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokrati i Amerika](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/nb-NO/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ For Turgot og Say, disipler av Quesnay, eksisterer det en naturlig lov, uavhengi Den andre filosofien finnes blant forfattere som Rousseau, Robespierre eller Kant, som representerer den republikanske tradisjonen hvor folkets generelle vilje er den sanne kilden til loven. En samtidig av Quesnay, Rousseau er en anti-fysiokrat. For ham må lovgiveren organisere samfunnet, som en mekaniker som oppfinner en maskin fra inert materie. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/007.webp) -> "Den som våger å påta seg etableringen av et folk," sier Rousseau, "må føle seg i stand til å endre, så å si, menneskets natur, til å transformere hver enkelt som, av seg selv, er et perfekt og ensomt hele, til en del av en større helhet fra hvilken denne enkeltpersonen mottar, på en måte, sitt liv og vesen." (_Samfunnskontrakten_) +> "Den som våger å påta seg etableringen av et folk," sier Rousseau, "må føle seg i stand til å endre, så å si, menneskets natur, til å transformere hver enkelt som, av seg selv, er et perfekt og ensomt hele, til en del av en større helhet fra hvilken denne enkeltpersonen mottar, på en måte, sitt liv og vesen." (_[Samfunnskontrakten](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Fra dette perspektivet er lovgiverens oppgave å organisere, endre, til og med avskaffe eiendom hvis han anser det for godt. For Rousseau er eiendom ikke naturlig, men konvensjonell, som samfunnet selv. I sin tur etablerer Robespierre prinsippet om at "Eiendom er retten til hver borger til å nyte og disponere over den delen av varer garantert til ham ved lov." Det finnes ingen naturlig rett til eiendom; det finnes bare et uendelig antall mulige og betingede ordninger. @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ Fra dette perspektivet er lovgiverens oppgave å organisere, endre, til og med a :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Myten om den forsynende lovgiveren + Når man åpner lærebøker, bemerket Bastiat, lærer man at menneskeheten ville være dømt til intetheten uten inngripen fra makt: > "Det er nok å åpne, nesten på måfå, en bok om filosofi, politikk eller historie for å se hvor dypt rotfestet i vårt land denne ideen er, født av klassiske studier og sosialismens mor, at menneskeheten er inert materie som mottar fra makten liv, organisasjon, moral og rikdom; — eller verre, at menneskeheten selv tenderer mot sin degradering og bare stoppes på denne skråningen av lovgiverens mystiske hånd." ([_Loven_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ Noen dager før sin død i Roma i 1850, betrodde Bastiat til sin venn Prosper Pa :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Historien skrevet av seierherrene + Det er kjent, historien skrives av seierherrene. Oppmerksomheten er ofte fokusert på erobringen av makt, på livene til ledere i makt, og på konfliktene som motsetter dem til de som ønsker å ta deres plass. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/010.webp) @@ -214,6 +222,8 @@ Denne tesen finnes også i et monumentalt verk fra 1983: _Lov og revolusjon: Dan :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Det sosialistiske synet på historien + En annen perspektiv på historien eksisterer imidlertid også. Det har vært ganske vellykket og lenge nytt støtte fra vestlige intellektuelle og representanter fra den globale sør. Dette er det sosialistiske og marxistiske synet på historien. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/013.webp) @@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ Denne analysen reflekterer en misforståelse av merverdi og det kooperative og d ### Den industrielle revolusjonen i spørsmål -Faktisk forvrenger den marxistiske analysen den historiske virkeligheten av den industrielle revolusjonen. Ludwig von Mises klargjorde dette problemet i sitt økonomiske verk [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (se spesielt kapittelet med tittelen [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) samt i en serie forelesninger publisert under tittelen: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Verdt å lese er også The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [her](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) og [her](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Faktisk forvrenger den marxistiske analysen den historiske virkeligheten av den industrielle revolusjonen. Ludwig von Mises klargjorde dette problemet i sitt økonomiske verk [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (se spesielt kapittelet med tittelen [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) samt i en serie forelesninger publisert under tittelen: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Verdt å lese er også The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [her](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) og [her](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/014.webp) Mises forklarer at jobber i fabrikker, selv om de var elendige etter våre standarder, representerte den beste mulige muligheten for arbeidere på den tiden. @@ -278,7 +288,9 @@ Det er dette radikalt desentraliserte Europa som produserte parlamenter, dietter :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -I det siste kapittelet av _Anatomy of the State_ (oversatt til fransk som _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, av Résurgence editions), foreslår Murray Rothbard en teori om historie. Dette veldig korte kapittelet har tittelen: Historie, et kappløp mellom statsmakt og sosial makt. Ifølge Rothbard kan historien forstås som en evig konflikt mellom to grunnleggende prinsipper: +### Statsmakt versus sosial makt + +I det siste kapittelet av _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (oversatt til fransk som _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, av Résurgence editions), foreslår Murray Rothbard en teori om historie. Dette veldig korte kapittelet har tittelen: Historie, et kappløp mellom statsmakt og sosial makt. Ifølge Rothbard kan historien forstås som en evig konflikt mellom to grunnleggende prinsipper: ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/017.webp) @@ -313,7 +325,7 @@ Ifølge Rothbard er historien ikke en lineær prosess, men snarere en svingning Fra det 17. århundre til det 19. århundre, i mange vestlige land, var det perioder med akselerasjon av sosial makt og en tilsvarende økning i frihet, fred og materiell velstand. Men Rothbard minner oss om at det 20. århundre var preget av en gjenoppblomstring av statsmakt, med alvorlige konsekvenser: en økning i slaveri, krig og ødeleggelse: > I løpet av dette århundret står menneskeheten igjen overfor det virulente herredømmet til Staten; Staten nå bevæpnet med menneskets kreative kraft, konfiskert og pervertert for sine egne formål. -> Hva er tross alt et fritt samfunn? Det er et samfunn uten monopol. I sitt arbeid med politisk filosofi, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), svarer Rothbard: "et samfunn der det ikke finnes noen juridisk mulighet for tvangsmessig aggresjon mot en persons person eller eiendom." Dette er grunnen til at han, ifølge ham, politisk filosofi, som må definere prinsippene for et rettferdig samfunn, koker ned til ett enkelt spørsmål: "Hvem eier legitimt hva?" +> Hva er tross alt et fritt samfunn? Det er et samfunn uten monopol. I sitt arbeid med politisk filosofi, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), svarer Rothbard: "et samfunn der det ikke finnes noen juridisk mulighet for tvangsmessig aggresjon mot en persons person eller eiendom." Dette er grunnen til at han, ifølge ham, politisk filosofi, som må definere prinsippene for et rettferdig samfunn, koker ned til ett enkelt spørsmål: "Hvem eier legitimt hva?" > ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/019.webp) For Rothbard kan sosial orden seire hvis den er produktet av generaliseringen av kontraktsprosedyrer for fri utveksling av eiendomsrettigheter, ved å privatisere alle økonomiske aktiviteter og til og med suverene funksjoner (sentralbank, domstoler) og ved å ty til konkurranse blant beskyttelsesbyråer. @@ -334,6 +346,8 @@ Og han legger til: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Arven etter det athenske demokratiet + Opplevelsen av athensk demokrati har etterlatt et varig merke på historien om politisk tenkning og fortsetter å inspirere idealer om demokrati og borgerdeltakelse i dagens verden. ![image](assets/nb-NO/020.webp) @@ -425,6 +439,8 @@ Det eneste middelet vi har for å nærme oss sannheten er kritikk og diskusjon. :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Et kosmopolitisk imperium + Det romerske imperiet var en stor kosmopolitisk enhet. På sitt høydepunkt, rundt 117 e.Kr., var det en enorm multi-etnisk og flerspråklig stat: - I vest strakte det seg fra Storbritannia (dagens England) til Spania, via Gallia (dagens Frankrike) og Nord-Afrika. @@ -528,6 +544,8 @@ Ved å hevde at loven ikke kan reduseres til bare de statuttene som er vedtatt a :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Nedgang og kollaps + Hvorfor gikk Roma i nedgang og til slutt falt? Mange liker å tenke at Romerriket kollapset plutselig, under påvirkning av barbariske invasjoner. Imidlertid er årsakene til Romerrikets kollaps å finne mye tidligere, i imperialisme og økonomisk og monetær dirigisme. @@ -601,6 +619,8 @@ Og han legger til: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Kristne røtter til individuell frihet + Den kristne ideen om frihet utviklet seg i middelalderens teologi fra Sankt Augustin på 300-tallet, til Sankt Thomas Aquinas på 1200-tallet. Hva er denne ideen? ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/037.webp) @@ -653,6 +673,8 @@ Ifølge Thomas Aquinas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Fornuftens autonomi + I middelalderen konkurrerer fornuft og tro om tilgangen til sannheten. Etter Abélard og Albertus Magnus, valgte Thomas Aquinas, på 1200-tallet, å forsvare fornuftens rettigheter og dens autonomi i forhold til troen. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/040.webp) @@ -692,6 +714,8 @@ Fra da av ville religiøs rasjonalisme definitivt seire over mystisismen. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Det teologisk-politiske systemet + I middelalderen arvet Kirken og de kristne monarkiene en politisk modell fra Romerriket, som historikere kaller det teologisk-politiske systemet, noe som betyr et system der makten er hellig, dvs., der den politiske lederen også er en religiøs leder. Dette er grunnen til at middelaldersamfunn er kjennetegnet av politisk-religiøs enstemmighet. Politisk makt baserer sin legitimitet, autoritet og enhet på den kristne (eller muslimske) troen. Den anser seg selv som vokter av kulturell og religiøs ortodoksi og behandler som pariaer de som avviker fra denne enstemmigheten. I denne konteksten, selv om en viss toleranse kunne innrømmes til de som løsriver seg fra den felles kulturelle visjonen (som jøder), kunne ingen rett til pluralisme anerkjennes for dem. Det var ikke før ved slutten av middelalderen, med erobringen av Amerika, at problemet med sivile friheter ble avgjørende for Kirken og så fremveksten av en første filosofi om lov som bekreftet og beskyttet individuelle friheter, legitimerte pluralisme og fordømte statlig tvang. @@ -733,6 +757,8 @@ Kirkens teokratiske fristelse kolliderer også med teorien om "guddommelig rett. :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Mennesket skapt i Guds bilde + Antikkens tankegang underordnet mennesket et guddommelig kosmos, det vil si, til et perfekt univers hvor han bare var en del. Monoteismen, derimot, hevder menneskets uendelig overlegne verdi over naturen, ettersom mennesket er skapt i Guds bilde. Dette avgjørende punktet er ved opprinnelsen til en sann etisk revolusjon. Bibelen bekrefter det hellige og uendelige verdien av hvert menneske. Dette er grunnen til at bibelsk etikk endrer vårt forhold til ondskap. Den bringer en skarp og enestående følsomhet til menneskelig lidelse. Den oppmuntrer oss derfor til å betrakte som unormalt og uutholdelig ondskap som menneskeheten inntil da hadde funnet helt tålelig, spesielt det onde gjort mot andre, mot de svake, mot de uskyldige. @@ -773,6 +799,8 @@ Ideén om menneskeheten går fremover. Det ble effektivt ansett at det bare er :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kristendommen og den frie økonomien + Vi har sett at kristendommen pålegger mennesker en moralsk plikt til å arbeide for å forbedre verden. Gud ønsker at mennesket skal være lykkelig, men ønsker ikke å oppnå sitt gode på hans sted. Det er derfor opp til den kristne å bekjempe moralsk ondskap, å elske sin neste, å hjelpe ofrene, kort sagt, å arbeide for en mer rettferdig og human verden. Er kapitalismen, det vil si den frie økonomien basert på privat eiendom og friheten til kontrakter, forenlig med den kristne plikten? En del av svaret ligger i det faktum at kapitalismen oppsto i en religiøs kontekst, lenge før den protestantiske reformasjonen. Den andre delen av svaret består i å observere det faktum at kapitalismen er det beste middelet for å forbedre den materielle og moralske tilstanden til individer. Bare en fri økonomi, basert på eiendomsrettigheter og frivillig samarbeid, er i stand til bærekraftig å løfte folk ut av elendighet. @@ -840,6 +868,8 @@ Dessuten, hvis to forskjellige valutaer nyter godt av lovlig betalingsmiddel, vi :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Religionskrigene og opplysningstiden + Fra renessansen ble Europa herjet av religionskriger. Toleranse ble derfor en av de store kampene i opplysningstiden. ![image](assets/nb-NO/050.webp) @@ -877,7 +907,7 @@ I _Tenth Letter_, "Om Handel", beskriver Voltaire det franske tankesettet som f ### Sannhet Krever Frihet -Likevel manglet ikke Frankrike store sinn. Det er lite kjent, men Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne var først og fremst en ledende tenker før han ble Controller General of Finances under Louis XVI. Han var forfatteren av et mesterlig avhandling om politisk økonomi, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), som kom før _The Wealth of Nations_ av Adam Smith (1776). +Likevel manglet ikke Frankrike store sinn. Det er lite kjent, men Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne var først og fremst en ledende tenker før han ble Controller General of Finances under Louis XVI. Han var forfatteren av et mesterlig avhandling om politisk økonomi, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), som kom før _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ av Adam Smith (1776). ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/052.webp) Hans tidlige skrifter reflekterer hans forpliktelse til opplysningstidens filosofi. I 1754 publiserte han sine _Letters on Civil Tolerance_ og i 1757, flere artikler skrevet for _The Encyclopédie_ av Diderot og d'Alembert. @@ -895,6 +925,8 @@ Med andre ord, å være tolerant betyr ikke å være fiendtlig innstilt til reli :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Den økonomiske liberalismens opprinnelse + Økonomisk liberalisme er ofte assosiert med en anglo-saksisk tradisjon som stammer fra Adam Smith, i kontrast til "politisk liberalisme," som sies å stamme fra opplysningstiden på kontinentet, spesielt i Frankrike. Dette synet er feil. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/053.webp) @@ -960,6 +992,8 @@ Kort sagt, hvis alle fritt kan forfølge sin private interesse i respekt for nat :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tre hendelser som endret historien + 1776 er et år som ofte går ubemerket i historiebøkene. Men i tre land, Frankrike, Skottland og Nord-Amerika, vil flere hendelser etterlate et uutslettelig merke på frihetens historie. ### Turgots vanære @@ -1000,7 +1034,7 @@ Det er også en avhandling om filosofi i den forstand at den demonstrerer hvorda ### Et manifest for frihet i Amerika -I 1776 publiserte en engelskmann ved navn Thomas Paine i Amerika et brennende pamflett som kritiserte det engelske monarkiet og talsmann for uavhengigheten til de amerikanske kolonistene: _Common Sense_. +I 1776 publiserte en engelskmann ved navn Thomas Paine i Amerika et brennende pamflett som kritiserte det engelske monarkiet og talsmann for uavhengigheten til de amerikanske kolonistene: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/059.webp) @@ -1060,6 +1094,8 @@ Denne ideen om spontan orden ville bli et nøkkelkonsept i arbeidet til Friedric :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularisering og det moderne samfunnet + Den store nyheten i denne moderne perioden i vestlig historie er fremveksten av et samfunn som organiserer seg utenfor religiøs avhengighet. Dette betyr ikke forsvinningen av religiøs tro eller Guds død. Men Gud blir en privat sak, ikke lenger blandet med politiske anliggender. Det er ingen forsvinning av religion, men en avtronisering av dens veiledende rolle. Det blir et system av individuelle troer. Denne sekulariseringen av den vestlige verden skjedde ikke over natten. Den ble forberedt av ideer. Som ofte, er filosofi i forkant av store kulturelle endringer. @@ -1140,7 +1176,7 @@ I Amerika var det ingen økonomisk dirigisme, ei heller en monetær konkurs som Med Rousseau og Robespierre ønsket franskmennene å tro at nasjonen eller den generelle viljen hadde ubegrenset makt og rettferdiggjorde alt. Fra det faktum at folket styrte, ble det konkludert med at de hadde alle rettigheter. Det var tydeligvis en motsetning mellom de store prinsippene for revolusjonen og midlene som ble brukt for å få dem til å seire. -Dette er for øvrig meningen med bemerkningen av Friedrich Hayek i hans bok _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Dette er for øvrig meningen med bemerkningen av Friedrich Hayek i hans bok _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Den avgjørende faktoren som gjorde revolusjonens anstrengelser til fordel for fremme av individuell frihet forgjeves, var at den skapte illusjonen om at, så lenge all makt hadde blitt overlevert til folket, hadde alle forholdsregler mot misbruk av denne makten blitt unødvendige. @@ -1154,6 +1190,8 @@ Dette er for øvrig meningen med bemerkningen av Friedrich Hayek i hans bok _The :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antikkens frihet versus moderne frihet + Ifølge Benjamin Constant kan frihet, i våre moderne samfunn, ikke lenger forstås på måten som i antikkens samfunn som direkte deltakelse i byens anliggender. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/070.webp) @@ -1161,14 +1199,14 @@ Ifølge Benjamin Constant kan frihet, i våre moderne samfunn, ikke lenger forst ### Frihet i Privatlivet I antikken var individet suverent i offentlige saker, men slavet i alle sine private relasjoner. Ofret av individuell frihet ble kompensert av bruken av politiske rettigheter: retten til direkte å utøve ulike deler av suvereniteten, å deliberere på torget, å stemme på lover, å uttale dommer, å evaluere og dømme magistrater. Det er en politisk og kollektiv frihet: -Friheten til de gamle besto av aktiv og konstant deltakelse i kollektiv makt. Vår frihet, derimot, må bestå av den fredelige nytelsen av privat uavhengighet; det følger at vi må være mye mer knyttet til vår individuelle uavhengighet enn de gamle. (_Om friheten til de gamle sammenlignet med den til de moderne_ (1819)) +Friheten til de gamle besto av aktiv og konstant deltakelse i kollektiv makt. Vår frihet, derimot, må bestå av den fredelige nytelsen av privat uavhengighet; det følger at vi må være mye mer knyttet til vår individuelle uavhengighet enn de gamle. (_[Om friheten til de gamle sammenlignet med den til de moderne](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/071.webp) Moderne frihet er sivil frihet, som inkluderer økonomisk frihet og er basert på retten til privatliv. Det er retten til ikke å bli utsatt for vilkårlighet, retten til ytring, forsamling, bevegelse, tilbedelse og industri. Det finnes ingen frihet uten muligheten til å velge sin egen livsstil og verdier, dermed ingen frihet uten muligheten til å trekke seg tilbake fra samfunnet og følgelig ingen frihet uten en begrensning av Staten for å tillate eksistensen av dette private rommet. Det er en frihet som tilsvarer det amerikanerne kaller borgerrettigheter. Denne definisjonen av frihet finnes hos John Stuart Mill: -> Den eneste friheten som fortjener navnet, er den å forfølge vårt eget gode på vår egen måte, så lenge vi ikke forsøker å frata andre deres eller hindre deres anstrengelser for å oppnå det. (...) Menneskeheten tjener mer på å la hver person leve som de ser passende enn ved å tvinge dem til å leve som det synes godt for andre. (_Om frihet_, 1859) +> Den eneste friheten som fortjener navnet, er den å forfølge vårt eget gode på vår egen måte, så lenge vi ikke forsøker å frata andre deres eller hindre deres anstrengelser for å oppnå det. (...) Menneskeheten tjener mer på å la hver person leve som de ser passende enn ved å tvinge dem til å leve som det synes godt for andre. (_[Om frihet](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/072.webp) @@ -1204,6 +1242,8 @@ Med andre ord, i et fritt samfunn, er det nødvendig å etablere en streng grens :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville og den demokratiske individualismen + Alexis de Tocqueville var en skarp observatør av demokratiet og en kritiker av demokratisk individualisme. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/074.webp) @@ -1278,6 +1318,8 @@ Ta en titt på kloden. Hvilke er de lykkeligste, mest moralske og mest fredelige :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 1800-tallets kritikk + Det var i løpet av det 19. århundret at kritikken av kapitalismen, og spesielt den marxistiske kritikken, dukket opp. ![image](assets/nb-NO/078.webp) @@ -1310,6 +1352,8 @@ Politisk revolusjon er derfor en illusjon, ifølge ham, så lenge den ikke er le :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Den østerrikske skolens svar + Den Østerrikske Skolen for Økonomi, grunnlagt av Carl Menger på slutten av det 19. århundre, motsatte seg Karl Marx' teorier fra starten. ![image](assets/nb-NO/081.webp) @@ -1361,7 +1405,7 @@ Marxister tror at sosialisme, et økonomisk system der produksjonsmidlene eies o ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/085.webp) -Allerede i 1922, i sin bok _Socialism,_ demonstrerte Ludwig von Mises at sosialisme ville føre til utbredte mangler, ettersom sentralplanleggere ikke ville være i stand til å gjøre nøyaktige økonomiske beregninger uten prissystemet som markedet tilbyr. +Allerede i 1922, i sin bok _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ demonstrerte Ludwig von Mises at sosialisme ville føre til utbredte mangler, ettersom sentralplanleggere ikke ville være i stand til å gjøre nøyaktige økonomiske beregninger uten prissystemet som markedet tilbyr. ## Veien til Trelldom @@ -1369,7 +1413,9 @@ Allerede i 1922, i sin bok _Socialism,_ demonstrerte Ludwig von Mises at sosiali :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmert av økningen i statlig intervensjonisme i økonomiene til vestlige demokratier, skrev Hayek _Veien til Trelldom_ som en filosofisk kritikk av kollektivisme, enten fra høyre eller venstre. Publisert i flere millioner eksemplarer, takket være _Reader’s Digest_, har denne boken i stor grad bidratt til Hayeks berømmelse i USA. +### Hayeks advarsel mot kollektivisme + +Alarmert av økningen i statlig intervensjonisme i økonomiene til vestlige demokratier, skrev Hayek _[Veien til Trelldom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ som en filosofisk kritikk av kollektivisme, enten fra høyre eller venstre. Publisert i flere millioner eksemplarer, takket være _Reader’s Digest_, har denne boken i stor grad bidratt til Hayeks berømmelse i USA. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/086.webp) @@ -1412,13 +1458,15 @@ Til slutt oppfordrer Hayek sine samtidige til å vende ryggen til "galskapen" og :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Den keynesianske revolusjonen + Kapitalismen blir ofte anklaget for å være kilden til påbudet: "vi må alltid produsere mer," eller formelen: "forbruk er bra for vekst." Imidlertid stammer ikke disse ideene fra tradisjonell kapitalisme, men fra keynesianismen, som har dominert feltet for økonomisk vitenskap og den politiske klassen siden 1930-tallet. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/088.webp) ### Analysen av Krisen i 1929 -Publisert i 1936, boken av John Maynard Keynes: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, feide alt på sin vei. Ved å stille spørsmål ved årsakene til den store depresjonen og midlene for å komme ut av den, beskriver han et nytt økonomisk paradigme, som ville konvertere generasjoner av økonomer og politikere. +Publisert i 1936, boken av John Maynard Keynes: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, feide alt på sin vei. Ved å stille spørsmål ved årsakene til den store depresjonen og midlene for å komme ut av den, beskriver han et nytt økonomisk paradigme, som ville konvertere generasjoner av økonomer og politikere. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/089.webp) @@ -1456,7 +1504,7 @@ Fra 1958 vil en politikk for å rette opp den franske økonomien, inspirert av J ![image](assets/nb-NO/094.webp) -I _Vestens monetære synd_, i 1971, skriver Rueff: +I _[Vestens monetære synd](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, i 1971, skriver Rueff: > Det er gjennom budsjettunderskudd at menn mister sin frihet. @@ -1473,6 +1521,8 @@ Ingen religion har spredt seg over verden så raskt som arbeidets religion. Drev :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Penger og sivilisasjon + Penger er et verktøy som har tillatt mennesker å bevege seg bort fra byttehandel, til å spare, og til å koordinere i stor skala gjennom markedet. Det har gjort spesialisering av arbeidskraft, komparative fordeler, gevinster fra handel, økonomisk kalkulasjon mulig. Uten penger er det ingen moderne sivilisasjon. ### Gull som den globale standarden @@ -1518,7 +1568,7 @@ I februar 1965, under en TV-sendt pressekonferanse, hadde General de Gaulle, dir ### Et penge marked uten statlig monopol er mulig -I 1976 foreslo Hayek et alternativ til statens monopol på valutaskapelse: konkurranse mellom valutaer. I sin bok, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), forestilte han seg et penge marked uten statlig monopol der flere private valutaer ville eksistere. Skapelsen og forvaltningen av forskjellige valutaer av private enheter ville tillate individer å velge den mest stabile og pålitelige valutaen, og dermed oppmuntre til konkurranse og disiplin blant utstedere. +I 1976 foreslo Hayek et alternativ til statens monopol på valutaskapelse: konkurranse mellom valutaer. I sin bok, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), forestilte han seg et penge marked uten statlig monopol der flere private valutaer ville eksistere. Skapelsen og forvaltningen av forskjellige valutaer av private enheter ville tillate individer å velge den mest stabile og pålitelige valutaen, og dermed oppmuntre til konkurranse og disiplin blant utstedere. ![bilde](assets/nb-NO/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/nl.md b/courses/phi101/nl.md index 761393f931c..21f04ec191d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/nl.md +++ b/courses/phi101/nl.md @@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ Vanaf de Oudheid tot de Verlichting steeg de vrijheid op naarmate samenlevingen :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Inleiding tot de cursus Welkom bij PHI101! @@ -79,11 +80,12 @@ Klaar om te beginnen aan deze unieke filosofische reis op zoek naar vrijheid? La :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Waarom de geschiedenis van vrijheid bestuderen? Waarom de titel van deze cursus: Een geschiedenis van vrijheid? Omdat we de relatie tussen ideeën en gebeurtenissen moeten begrijpen om ons tijdperk beter te kunnen beoordelen en met onderscheidingsvermogen te kunnen handelen. In het verleden vinden we de Elements voor een beter begrip van wat vrijheid is en de redenen waarom we het moeten koesteren. -> Wanneer het verleden de toekomst niet langer verlicht, wandelt de geest in duisternis (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democratie in Amerika_). +> Wanneer het verleden de toekomst niet langer verlicht, wandelt de geest in duisternis (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democratie in Amerika](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/nl/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ De tweede filosofie is te vinden bij auteurs als Rousseau, Robespierre of Kant, ![image](assets/nl/007.webp) -> "Hij die de oprichting van een volk op zich durft te nemen," zegt Rousseau, "moet zich in staat voelen om, om zo te zeggen, de menselijke natuur te veranderen, om elk individu dat op zichzelf een volmaakt en eenzaam geheel is, om te vormen tot een deel van een groter geheel waaruit dit individu in zekere zin zijn leven en zijn ontvangt." (_Sociaal contract_) +> "Hij die de oprichting van een volk op zich durft te nemen," zegt Rousseau, "moet zich in staat voelen om, om zo te zeggen, de menselijke natuur te veranderen, om elk individu dat op zichzelf een volmaakt en eenzaam geheel is, om te vormen tot een deel van een groter geheel waaruit dit individu in zekere zin zijn leven en zijn ontvangt." (_[Sociaal contract](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Vanuit dit perspectief is het de taak van de wetgever om eigendom te organiseren, aan te passen of zelfs af te schaffen als dat nodig wordt geacht. Voor Rousseau is eigendom niet natuurlijk maar conventioneel, net als de maatschappij zelf. Robespierre stelt op zijn beurt het principe vast dat "Eigendom het recht is van iedere burger om te genieten van en te beschikken over het deel van de goederen dat hem door de wet is gegarandeerd" Er bestaat geen natuurlijk recht op eigendom; er zijn slechts een onbepaald aantal mogelijke en voorwaardelijke regelingen. @@ -171,6 +173,7 @@ Vanuit dit perspectief is het de taak van de wetgever om eigendom te organiseren :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### De mythe van de voorzienige wetgever Wanneer je schoolboeken openslaat, merkte Bastiat op, leer je dat de mensheid gedoemd zou zijn tot niets zonder de tussenkomst van de macht: @@ -253,6 +256,7 @@ Een paar dagen voordat hij in 1850 in Rome stierf, nam Bastiat zijn vriend Prosp :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Geschiedenis geschreven door de overwinnaars Het is bekend dat de overwinnaars geschiedenis schrijven. De aandacht gaat vaak uit naar de verovering van de macht, naar het leven van de leiders die aan de macht zijn en naar de conflicten die zich verzetten tegen degenen die hun plaats willen innemen. @@ -316,6 +320,8 @@ Deze stelling is ook te vinden in een monumentaal werk uit 1983: _Wet en revolut :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### De socialistische kijk op de geschiedenis + Er bestaat echter een ander perspectief op geschiedenis. Het is behoorlijk succesvol en geniet al lange tijd de steun van westerse intellectuelen en vertegenwoordigers van het Mondiale Zuiden. Dit is de socialistische en marxistische kijk op de geschiedenis. ![image](assets/nl/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +350,7 @@ Deze analyse weerspiegelt een verkeerd begrip van meerwaarde en de coöperatieve ### De industriële revolutie in vraag -In feite verdraait de marxistische analyse de historische realiteit van de Industriële Revolutie. Ludwig von Mises verduidelijkte deze kwestie in zijn economische verhandeling [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (zie vooral het hoofdstuk getiteld [Populaire interpretatie van de industriële revolutie](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) en in een reeks lezingen gepubliceerd onder de titel: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Ook het lezen waard, De anti-kapitalistische mentaliteit [hier](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) en [hier](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +In feite verdraait de marxistische analyse de historische realiteit van de Industriële Revolutie. Ludwig von Mises verduidelijkte deze kwestie in zijn economische verhandeling [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (zie vooral het hoofdstuk getiteld [Populaire interpretatie van de industriële revolutie](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) en in een reeks lezingen gepubliceerd onder de titel: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Ook het lezen waard, De anti-kapitalistische mentaliteit [hier](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) en [hier](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/nl/014.webp) @@ -414,8 +420,9 @@ Tot slot van dit hoofdstuk: de economische en culturele opkomst van Europa was n :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Staatsmacht versus sociale macht -In het laatste hoofdstuk van _Anatomy of the State_ (in het Frans vertaald als _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, door Résurgence editions) stelt Murray Rothbard een theorie van de geschiedenis voor. Dit zeer korte hoofdstuk is getiteld 'Geschiedenis: Een wedloop tussen staatsmacht en sociale macht' Volgens Rothbard kan de geschiedenis worden begrepen als een eeuwigdurend conflict tussen twee fundamentele principes: +In het laatste hoofdstuk van _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (in het Frans vertaald als _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, door Résurgence editions) stelt Murray Rothbard een theorie van de geschiedenis voor. Dit zeer korte hoofdstuk is getiteld 'Geschiedenis: Een wedloop tussen staatsmacht en sociale macht' Volgens Rothbard kan de geschiedenis worden begrepen als een eeuwigdurend conflict tussen twee fundamentele principes: ![image](assets/nl/017.webp) @@ -472,7 +479,7 @@ Tussen de 17e en de 19e eeuw waren er in veel westerse landen perioden van versn > In deze eeuw wordt het menselijk ras opnieuw geconfronteerd met de virulente heerschappij van de staat; de staat die nu gewapend is met de scheppende kracht van de mens, geconfisqueerd en misbruikt voor zijn eigen doeleinden. -Wat is een vrije samenleving eigenlijk? Het is een samenleving zonder monopolie. In zijn werk over politieke filosofie, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), antwoordt Rothbard: "een samenleving waarin er geen wettelijke mogelijkheid is tot dwangmatige agressie tegen de persoon of het eigendom van een individu." Daarom komt volgens hem de politieke filosofie, die de principes van een rechtvaardige samenleving moet definiëren, neer op één enkele vraag: "Wie bezit legitiem wat?" +Wat is een vrije samenleving eigenlijk? Het is een samenleving zonder monopolie. In zijn werk over politieke filosofie, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), antwoordt Rothbard: "een samenleving waarin er geen wettelijke mogelijkheid is tot dwangmatige agressie tegen de persoon of het eigendom van een individu." Daarom komt volgens hem de politieke filosofie, die de principes van een rechtvaardige samenleving moet definiëren, neer op één enkele vraag: "Wie bezit legitiem wat?" ![image](assets/nl/019.webp) @@ -500,6 +507,7 @@ En hij voegt eraan toe: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### De erfenis van de Atheense democratie De ervaring van de Atheense democratie heeft een blijvende stempel gedrukt op de geschiedenis van het politieke denken en inspireert nog steeds de idealen van democratie en burgerparticipatie in de wereld van vandaag. @@ -640,6 +648,7 @@ De enige middelen die we hebben om de waarheid te benaderen zijn kritiek en disc :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Een kosmopolitisch rijk Het Romeinse Rijk was een uitgestrekte, kosmopolitische entiteit. Op zijn hoogtepunt, rond 117 na Christus, was het een immense multi-etnische en meertalige staat: @@ -794,6 +803,7 @@ Cicero beweerde dat het recht niet gereduceerd kan worden tot alleen de wetten d :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Neergang en ineenstorting Waarom ging Rome ten onder en viel het uiteindelijk? Velen denken graag dat het Romeinse Rijk plotseling instortte, onder invloed van invasies van barbaren. De oorzaken van de ineenstorting van het Romeinse Rijk zijn echter veel eerder te vinden, in imperialisme en economisch en monetair dirigisme. @@ -906,6 +916,7 @@ En hij voegt eraan toe: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Christelijke wortels van individuele vrijheid Het christelijke concept van vrijheid ontwikkelde zich in de middeleeuwse theologie, van de heilige Augustinus in de 4e eeuw tot de heilige Thomas van Aquino in de 13e eeuw. Wat is dit idee? @@ -983,6 +994,7 @@ Volgens Sint Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### De autonomie van de rede In de Middeleeuwen streden rede en geloof om toegang tot de waarheid. In navolging van Abélard en Albert de Grote koos Thomas van Aquino er in de 13e eeuw voor om de autonomie van de rede ten opzichte van het geloof te verdedigen. @@ -1044,6 +1056,7 @@ Vanaf dat moment zou het religieuze rationalisme het definitief winnen van het m :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Het theologisch-politieke systeem In de Middeleeuwen erfden de kerk en christelijke monarchieën een politiek model van het Romeinse Rijk dat bekend staat als het theologisch-politieke systeem - een systeem waarin macht als heilig wordt beschouwd, wat betekent dat de politieke leider ook een religieuze leider is. @@ -1102,6 +1115,7 @@ De theocratische verleiding van de kerk botst ook met de theorie van "goddelijk :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### De mens geschapen naar het beeld van God Het oude denken maakte de mens ondergeschikt aan een goddelijke kosmos, dat wil zeggen aan een volmaakt universum waarvan hij slechts een deel was. Het monotheïsme daarentegen bevestigt de oneindig superieure waarde van de mens boven de natuur, voor zover de mens geschapen is naar het beeld van God. Dit cruciale punt ligt aan de oorsprong van een ware ethische revolutie. De Bijbel bevestigt de heilige en oneindige waarde van elk menselijk wezen. @@ -1158,6 +1172,7 @@ Het idee van menselijkheid ontwikkelt zich. Men is er inderdaad van uitgegaan da :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Het christendom en de vrije economie We hebben gezien dat het christendom mensen de morele plicht oplegt om te werken aan het verbeteren van de wereld. God wil dat de mens gelukkig is, maar wil zijn goed niet in zijn plaats bereiken. Daarom is het aan de christen om het morele kwaad te bestrijden, zijn naaste lief te hebben, de slachtoffers te helpen, kortom, te werken aan een rechtvaardiger en menselijker wereld. Is het kapitalisme, dat wil zeggen de vrije economie gebaseerd op privébezit en contractvrijheid, verenigbaar met de christelijke plicht? @@ -1253,6 +1268,7 @@ Bovendien, als twee verschillende munteenheden profiteren van een wettig betaalm :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Godsdienstoorlogen en de Verlichting Vanaf de Renaissance werd Europa geteisterd door godsdienstoorlogen. Tolerantie werd daarom een van de grote veldslagen van de Verlichting. @@ -1311,7 +1327,7 @@ In de _Tiende Brief_, "Over de handel", beschrijft Voltaire de Franse mentalitei ### Waarheid vereist vrijheid -Toch ontbrak het Frankrijk niet aan grote geesten. Het is weinig bekend, maar Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, was in de eerste plaats een vooraanstaand denker voordat hij de controleur-generaal van financiën onder Lodewijk XVI werd. Hij was de auteur van een meesterlijke verhandeling over politieke economie, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), die dateert van vóór Adam Smiths _The Wealth of Nations_ (1776). +Toch ontbrak het Frankrijk niet aan grote geesten. Het is weinig bekend, maar Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, was in de eerste plaats een vooraanstaand denker voordat hij de controleur-generaal van financiën onder Lodewijk XVI werd. Hij was de auteur van een meesterlijke verhandeling over politieke economie, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), die dateert van vóór Adam Smiths _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776). ![image](assets/nl/052.webp) @@ -1340,6 +1356,8 @@ Met andere woorden, tolerant zijn betekent niet vijandig staan tegenover religie :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### De oorsprong van het economisch liberalisme + Economisch liberalisme wordt vaak geassocieerd met een Angelsaksische traditie, afkomstig van Adam Smith. Het wordt gecontrasteerd met "politiek liberalisme", waarvan wordt gezegd dat het voortkomt uit de continentale Verlichting, vooral in Frankrijk. Deze opvatting is onjuist. @@ -1437,6 +1455,7 @@ Kortom, als iedereen in vrijheid zijn privé-belangen kan nastreven met respect :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Drie gebeurtenissen die de geschiedenis veranderden 1776 is een jaar dat vaak onopgemerkt blijft in geschiedenisboeken. Maar in drie landen - Frankrijk, Schotland en Noord-Amerika - zullen verschillende gebeurtenissen een onuitwisbare stempel drukken op de geschiedenis van de vrijheid. @@ -1497,7 +1516,7 @@ Het is ook een verhandeling over filosofie omdat het laat zien hoe vrij en vrijw ### Een manifest voor vrijheid in Amerika -In 1776 publiceerde de Engelsman Thomas Paine in Amerika een venijnig pamflet met de titel _Common Sense_, waarin hij de Engelse monarchie bekritiseerde en pleitte voor de onafhankelijkheid van de Amerikaanse kolonisten. +In 1776 publiceerde de Engelsman Thomas Paine in Amerika een venijnig pamflet met de titel _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_, waarin hij de Engelse monarchie bekritiseerde en pleitte voor de onafhankelijkheid van de Amerikaanse kolonisten. ![image](assets/nl/059.webp) @@ -1585,6 +1604,7 @@ Het concept van spontane orde werd een sleutelidee in het werk van Friedrich Hay :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Secularisatie en de moderne samenleving De grote nieuwigheid van deze moderne periode in de Westerse geschiedenis is de opkomst van een samenleving die zichzelf buiten religieuze afhankelijkheid organiseert. Dit betekent niet het verdwijnen van religieus geloof of de dood van God. Maar God wordt een privéaangelegenheid, niet langer vermengd met politieke zaken. Er is geen verdwijning van religie maar een onttroning van haar sturende rol. Het wordt een systeem van individuele overtuigingen. @@ -1710,7 +1730,7 @@ In Amerika was er geen economisch dirigisme, noch een monetair faillissement zoa Met Rousseau en Robespierre wilden de Fransen geloven dat de Natie of de algemene wil onbeperkte macht had en alle acties rechtvaardigde. Uit het feit dat het volk regeerde, werd geconcludeerd dat het alle rechten had. Er was duidelijk een tegenstelling tussen de grote principes van de Revolutie en de middelen die gebruikt werden om ze te laten zegevieren. -Dit is bovendien de betekenis van de opmerking van Friedrich Hayek in zijn boek _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Dit is bovendien de betekenis van de opmerking van Friedrich Hayek in zijn boek _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > De beslissende factor die de inspanningen van de Revolutie ten gunste van de bevordering van de individuele vrijheid vruchteloos maakte, was dat ze de illusie creëerde dat, voor zover alle macht was overgedragen aan het volk, alle voorzorgsmaatregelen tegen het misbruik van deze macht overbodig waren geworden. @@ -1728,6 +1748,7 @@ Dit is bovendien de betekenis van de opmerking van Friedrich Hayek in zijn boek :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antieke versus moderne vrijheid Volgens Benjamin Constant kan vrijheid in moderne samenlevingen niet langer worden begrepen op de manier van oude culturen, als directe deelname aan de aangelegenheden van de stad. @@ -1741,7 +1762,7 @@ Volgens Benjamin Constant kan vrijheid in moderne samenlevingen niet langer word In de oudheid waren individuen soeverein in openbare zaken maar slaven in al hun privérelaties. Het gebruik van politieke rechten compenseerde het offer van individuele vrijheid: het recht om verschillende aspecten van soevereiniteit direct uit te oefenen, om te beraadslagen op het publieke plein, om te stemmen over wetten, om vonnissen uit te spreken en om magistraten te beoordelen en te veroordelen. Het is een politieke en collectieve vrijheid: -> De vrijheid van de Ouden bestond uit actieve en voortdurende deelname aan de collectieve macht. Onze vrijheid daarentegen moet bestaan uit het vreedzaam genieten van privé-onafhankelijkheid; hieruit volgt dat we veel meer dan de Ouden gehecht moeten zijn aan onze onafhankelijkheid. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> De vrijheid van de Ouden bestond uit actieve en voortdurende deelname aan de collectieve macht. Onze vrijheid daarentegen moet bestaan uit het vreedzaam genieten van privé-onafhankelijkheid; hieruit volgt dat we veel meer dan de Ouden gehecht moeten zijn aan onze onafhankelijkheid. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/nl/071.webp) @@ -1752,7 +1773,7 @@ Moderne vrijheid omvat burgerlijke vrijheden, waaronder economische vrijheid en Deze definitie van vrijheid is te vinden bij John Stuart Mill: -> De enige vrijheid die deze naam verdient is die van het nastreven van ons eigen goed op onze manier, zolang we niet proberen anderen hun goed te ontnemen of hun inspanningen om het te verkrijgen te belemmeren. (...) De mensheid wint meer door ieder mens te laten leven zoals het hem goeddunkt dan door hem te dwingen te leven zoals anderen dat goed achten. (_Op Vrijheid_, 1859) +> De enige vrijheid die deze naam verdient is die van het nastreven van ons eigen goed op onze manier, zolang we niet proberen anderen hun goed te ontnemen of hun inspanningen om het te verkrijgen te belemmeren. (...) De mensheid wint meer door ieder mens te laten leven zoals het hem goeddunkt dan door hem te dwingen te leven zoals anderen dat goed achten. (_[Op Vrijheid](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/nl/072.webp) @@ -1802,6 +1823,7 @@ Met andere woorden, in een vrije samenleving is het noodzakelijk om een strikte :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville en het democratisch individualisme Alexis de Tocqueville was een scherp waarnemer van democratie en een criticus van democratisch individualisme. @@ -1913,6 +1935,7 @@ Kijk eens naar de wereldbol. Wat zijn de gelukkigste, meest morele en meest vree :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### De kritiek van de 19e eeuw In de 19e eeuw ontstond de kritiek op het kapitalisme, met name de marxistische kritiek. @@ -1959,6 +1982,7 @@ Politieke revolutie is daarom volgens hem een illusie zolang ze niet gepaard gaa :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Het antwoord van de Oostenrijkse School De Oostenrijkse School voor Economie, opgericht door Carl Menger aan het einde van de 19e eeuw, verzette zich vanaf het begin tegen de theorieën van Karl Marx. @@ -2042,7 +2066,7 @@ Marxisten geloven dat socialisme, een economisch systeem waarin de productiemidd ![image](assets/nl/085.webp) -Al in 1922 toonde Ludwig von Mises in zijn boek _Socialisme,_ aan dat het socialisme tot wijdverspreide tekorten zou leiden, omdat centrale planners niet in staat zouden zijn om nauwkeurige economische berekeningen te maken zonder het prijssysteem dat de markt biedt. +Al in 1922 toonde Ludwig von Mises in zijn boek _[Socialisme](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ aan dat het socialisme tot wijdverspreide tekorten zou leiden, omdat centrale planners niet in staat zouden zijn om nauwkeurige economische berekeningen te maken zonder het prijssysteem dat de markt biedt. ## De weg naar slavernij @@ -2052,8 +2076,9 @@ Al in 1922 toonde Ludwig von Mises in zijn boek _Socialisme,_ aan dat het social :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### Hayeks waarschuwing tegen het collectivisme -Hayek was gealarmeerd door de opkomst van overheidsinterventie in de economieën van westerse democratieën en schreef _The Road to Serfdom_ als een filosofische kritiek op collectivisme, zowel van rechts als van links. Gepubliceerd in miljoenen exemplaren, dankzij de _Reader's Digest_, heeft dit boek sterk bijgedragen aan de bekendheid van Hayek in de Verenigde Staten. +Hayek was gealarmeerd door de opkomst van overheidsinterventie in de economieën van westerse democratieën en schreef _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ als een filosofische kritiek op collectivisme, zowel van rechts als van links. Gepubliceerd in miljoenen exemplaren, dankzij de _Reader's Digest_, heeft dit boek sterk bijgedragen aan de bekendheid van Hayek in de Verenigde Staten. ![image](assets/nl/086.webp) @@ -2115,6 +2140,7 @@ Tot slot roept Hayek zijn tijdgenoten op om de "waanzin" en het "hedendaagse obs :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### De Keynesiaanse revolutie Het kapitalisme wordt er vaak van beschuldigd de bron te zijn van het bevel: "we moeten altijd meer produceren," of van de formule: "consumeren is goed voor de groei." Deze ideeën komen echter niet voort uit het traditionele kapitalisme, maar uit het Keynesianisme, dat sinds de jaren 1930 het veld van de economische wetenschap en de politieke klasse heeft gedomineerd. @@ -2125,7 +2151,7 @@ Het kapitalisme wordt er vaak van beschuldigd de bron te zijn van het bevel: "we ### De analyse van de crisis van 1929 -Het boek van John Maynard Keynes, _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, dat in 1936 werd gepubliceerd, veegde alles op zijn pad. Hij stelde vragen over de oorzaken van de Grote Depressie en de middelen om daaruit te komen en beschreef een nieuw economisch paradigma dat generaties economen en politici zou bekeren. +Het boek van John Maynard Keynes, _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, dat in 1936 werd gepubliceerd, veegde alles op zijn pad. Hij stelde vragen over de oorzaken van de Grote Depressie en de middelen om daaruit te komen en beschreef een nieuw economisch paradigma dat generaties economen en politici zou bekeren. ![image](assets/nl/089.webp) @@ -2187,7 +2213,7 @@ Vanaf 1958 werd onder het gezag van Generaal de Gaulle een beleid gevoerd om de ![image](assets/nl/094.webp) -In _De monetaire zonde van het Westen_, in 1971, schrijft Rueff: +In _[De monetaire zonde van het Westen](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, in 1971, schrijft Rueff: > Door het begrotingstekort verliezen mensen hun vrijheid. @@ -2210,6 +2236,7 @@ Geen enkele religie heeft zich zo snel over de wereld verspreid als die van de w :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Geld en beschaving Geld is een instrument dat mensen in staat heeft gesteld om verder te gaan dan ruilhandel, te sparen en op grote schaal te coördineren via de markt. Het heeft specialisatie van arbeid, comparatief voordeel, winst uit handel en economische berekening mogelijk gemaakt. Zonder geld zou er geen moderne beschaving zijn. @@ -2272,7 +2299,7 @@ In februari 1965 stelde generaal de Gaulle, rechtstreeks geïnspireerd door Ruef ### Een monetaire markt zonder staatsmonopolie is mogelijk -In 1976 stelde Hayek een alternatief voor het staatsmonopolie op de creatie van valuta voor: concurrentie tussen valuta. In zijn boek _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_De denationalisatie van het geld_) stelde hij zich een monetaire markt voor zonder staatsmonopolie waarin verschillende privévaluta naast elkaar zouden bestaan. De creatie en het beheer van verschillende munteenheden door particuliere entiteiten zou individuen in staat stellen om de meest stabiele en betrouwbare munt te kiezen, waardoor concurrentie en discipline tussen emittenten zou worden aangemoedigd. +In 1976 stelde Hayek een alternatief voor het staatsmonopolie op de creatie van valuta voor: concurrentie tussen valuta. In zijn boek _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[De denationalisatie van het geld](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) stelde hij zich een monetaire markt voor zonder staatsmonopolie waarin verschillende privévaluta naast elkaar zouden bestaan. De creatie en het beheer van verschillende munteenheden door particuliere entiteiten zou individuen in staat stellen om de meest stabiele en betrouwbare munt te kiezen, waardoor concurrentie en discipline tussen emittenten zou worden aangemoedigd. ![image](assets/nl/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/pl.md b/courses/phi101/pl.md index 8bc685ddbc9..11c55ca709a 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/pl.md +++ b/courses/phi101/pl.md @@ -27,6 +27,8 @@ Od starożytności przez oświecenie wolność wzrastała, gdy społeczeństwa p :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Wprowadzenie do kursu + Witamy w PHI101! @@ -80,10 +82,12 @@ Gotowy, by wyruszyć w tę wyjątkową filozoficzną podróż w poszukiwaniu wol :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Dlaczego warto studiować historię wolności? + Dlaczego warto zatytułować ten kurs: historia wolności? Ponieważ musimy zrozumieć związek między ideami i wydarzeniami, aby lepiej oceniać naszą epokę i działać z rozeznaniem. To właśnie w przeszłości znajdujemy Elements, aby lepiej zrozumieć, czym jest wolność i dlaczego musimy ją pielęgnować. -> Kiedy przeszłość nie oświetla już przyszłości, duch kroczy w ciemności (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokracja w Ameryce_) +> Kiedy przeszłość nie oświetla już przyszłości, duch kroczy w ciemności (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokracja w Ameryce](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_) ![image](assets/pl/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +163,7 @@ Drugą filozofię można znaleźć wśród autorów takich jak Rousseau, Robespi ![image](assets/pl/007.webp) -> "Ten, kto odważy się założyć naród", mówi Rousseau, "musi czuć się zdolny do zmiany, by tak rzec, ludzkiej natury, do przekształcenia każdej jednostki, która sama w sobie jest doskonałą i samotną całością, w część większej całości, z której jednostka ta otrzymuje w pewnym sensie swoje życie i byt" (_Umowa społeczna_) +> "Ten, kto odważy się założyć naród", mówi Rousseau, "musi czuć się zdolny do zmiany, by tak rzec, ludzkiej natury, do przekształcenia każdej jednostki, która sama w sobie jest doskonałą i samotną całością, w część większej całości, z której jednostka ta otrzymuje w pewnym sensie swoje życie i byt" (_[Umowa społeczna](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Z tej perspektywy misją prawodawcy jest organizowanie, modyfikowanie, a nawet znoszenie własności, jeśli uzna ją za dobrą. Dla Rousseau własność nie jest czymś naturalnym, lecz konwencjonalnym, podobnie jak samo społeczeństwo. Z kolei Robespierre ustanawia zasadę, że "własność jest prawem każdego obywatela do korzystania i dysponowania częścią dóbr zagwarantowanych mu przez prawo" Nie ma naturalnego prawa do własności; istnieje tylko nieokreślona liczba możliwych i warunkowych ustaleń. @@ -172,6 +176,8 @@ Z tej perspektywy misją prawodawcy jest organizowanie, modyfikowanie, a nawet z :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Mit opatrznościowego prawodawcy + Jak zauważył Bastiat, kiedy otwiera się podręczniki, dowiadujemy się, że ludzkość byłaby skazana na nicość bez interwencji władzy: @@ -254,6 +260,8 @@ Kilka dni przed śmiercią w Rzymie w 1850 r. Bastiat zwierzył się swojemu prz :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Historia pisana przez zwycięzców + Jak wiadomo, historię piszą zwycięzcy. Uwaga często skupia się na zdobyciu władzy, na życiu przywódców u władzy i na konfliktach, które przeciwstawiają ich tym, którzy chcą zająć ich miejsce. @@ -316,6 +324,8 @@ Teza ta znajduje się również w monumentalnym dziele z 1983 roku: _Law and Rev :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Socjalistyczna wizja historii + Istnieje jednak inne spojrzenie na historię. Odniosła ona spory sukces i od dawna cieszy się poparciem zachodnich intelektualistów i przedstawicieli globalnego Południa. Jest to socjalistyczny i marksistowski pogląd na historię. ![image](assets/pl/013.webp) @@ -352,7 +362,7 @@ W rzeczywistości marksistowska analiza zniekształca historyczną rzeczywistoś Mises wyjaśnia, że praca w fabrykach, choć nędzna według naszych standardów, stanowiła najlepszą możliwą okazję dla ówczesnych pracowników. -Przeczytajmy fragment książki _Human Action_: +Przeczytajmy fragment książki _[Human Action](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)_: > W pierwszych dziesięcioleciach rewolucji przemysłowej standardy życia robotników fabrycznych były skandalicznie niskie w porównaniu z warunkami ich rówieśników z wyższych klas, a także w porównaniu z obecną sytuacją tłumów przemysłowych. Godziny pracy były długie, a warunki sanitarne w warsztatach opłakane. Zdolność do pracy jednostek szybko się wyczerpywała. Ale faktem pozostaje, że dla nadwyżki ludności, którą zawłaszczenie gminnych pastwisk (zagród) sprowadziło do najgorszej nędzy i dla której dosłownie nie było miejsca w ramach panującego systemu produkcji, praca w fabryce była zbawieniem. Ludzie ci tłumnie przybywali do warsztatów tylko dlatego, że bezwzględnie potrzebowali poprawy standardu życia. @@ -415,7 +425,9 @@ Podsumowując ten rozdział, gospodarczy i kulturowy start Europy nie wynikał z :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -W ostatnim rozdziale książki _Anatomy of the State_ (przetłumaczonej na francuski jako _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ przez Résurgence editions) Murray Rothbard proponuje teorię historii. Ten bardzo krótki rozdział nosi tytuł: Historia, wyścig między władzą państwową a władzą społeczną. Według Rothbarda historię można rozumieć jako nieustanny konflikt między dwiema fundamentalnymi zasadami: +### Władza państwowa kontra władza społeczna + +W ostatnim rozdziale książki _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (przetłumaczonej na francuski jako _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ przez Résurgence editions) Murray Rothbard proponuje teorię historii. Ten bardzo krótki rozdział nosi tytuł: Historia, wyścig między władzą państwową a władzą społeczną. Według Rothbarda historię można rozumieć jako nieustanny konflikt między dwiema fundamentalnymi zasadami: ![image](assets/pl/017.webp) @@ -471,7 +483,7 @@ Od XVII do XIX wieku w wielu krajach zachodnich miały miejsce okresy przyspiesz > W tym stuleciu rasa ludzka po raz kolejny stanęła w obliczu zjadliwego panowania państwa; państwa uzbrojonego teraz w twórczą moc człowieka, skonfiskowaną i wypaczoną dla własnych celów. -> Czym w końcu jest wolne społeczeństwo? To społeczeństwo bez monopolu. W swoim dziele filozofii politycznej, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard odpowiada: "społeczeństwo, w którym nie ma prawnej możliwości przymusowej agresji przeciwko osobie lub własności jednostki" To dlatego, według niego, filozofia polityczna, która musi zdefiniować zasady sprawiedliwego społeczeństwa, sprowadza się do jednego pytania: "Kto jest prawowitym właścicielem czego?" +> Czym w końcu jest wolne społeczeństwo? To społeczeństwo bez monopolu. W swoim dziele filozofii politycznej, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard odpowiada: "społeczeństwo, w którym nie ma prawnej możliwości przymusowej agresji przeciwko osobie lub własności jednostki" To dlatego, według niego, filozofia polityczna, która musi zdefiniować zasady sprawiedliwego społeczeństwa, sprowadza się do jednego pytania: "Kto jest prawowitym właścicielem czego?" > ![image](assets/pl/019.webp) Dla Rothbarda porządek społeczny może zapanować, jeśli jest produktem uogólnienia procedur umownych dla swobodnego Exchange praw własności, poprzez prywatyzację wszystkich działań gospodarczych, a nawet funkcji suwerennych (bank centralny, sądy) i poprzez uciekanie się do konkurencji między agencjami ochrony. @@ -499,6 +511,8 @@ I dodaje: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Dziedzictwo demokracji ateńskiej + Doświadczenie demokracji ateńskiej pozostawiło trwały ślad w historii myśli politycznej i nadal inspiruje ideały demokracji i uczestnictwa obywateli w dzisiejszym świecie. @@ -639,6 +653,8 @@ Jedynymi środkami, jakie mamy, aby zbliżyć się do prawdy, są krytyka i dysk :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kosmopolityczne imperium + Imperium Rzymskie było rozległą, kosmopolityczną jednostką. W szczytowym okresie, około 117 r. n.e., było to ogromne wieloetniczne i wielojęzyczne państwo: @@ -793,6 +809,8 @@ Twierdząc, że prawa nie można zredukować jedynie do ustaw uchwalonych przez :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Schyłek i upadek + Dlaczego Rzym podupadł i ostatecznie upadł? Wielu lubi myśleć, że Imperium Rzymskie upadło nagle, pod wpływem najazdów barbarzyńców. Przyczyny upadku Imperium Rzymskiego można jednak znaleźć znacznie wcześniej, w imperializmie oraz zarządzaniu gospodarczym i monetarnym. @@ -905,6 +923,8 @@ I dodaje: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Chrześcijańskie korzenie wolności jednostki + Chrześcijańska idea wolności rozwinęła się w średniowiecznej teologii od świętego Augustyna w IV wieku do świętego Tomasza z Akwinu w XIII wieku. Czym jest ta idea? @@ -982,6 +1002,8 @@ Według świętego Tomasza: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Autonomia rozumu + W średniowieczu rozum i wiara rywalizowały o dostęp do prawdy. Podążając za Abélardem i Albertem Wielkim, Tomasz z Akwinu w XIII wieku postanowił bronić praw rozumu i jego autonomii w stosunku do wiary. @@ -1043,6 +1065,8 @@ Od tego momentu religijny racjonalizm ostatecznie zwyciężył nad mistycyzmem. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### System teologiczno-polityczny + W średniowieczu Kościół i monarchie chrześcijańskie odziedziczyły model polityczny po Imperium Rzymskim, który historycy nazywają systemem teologiczno-politycznym, co oznacza system, w którym władza jest święta, tj. w którym przywódca polityczny jest również przywódcą religijnym. @@ -1101,6 +1125,8 @@ Teokratyczna pokusa Kościoła kłóci się również z teorią "boskiego prawa" :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Człowiek stworzony na obraz Boga + Starożytna myśl podporządkowywała człowieka boskiemu kosmosowi, czyli doskonałemu wszechświatowi, którego był jedynie częścią. Z drugiej strony monoteizm zapewnia nieskończenie wyższą wartość człowieka nad naturą, o ile człowiek został stworzony na obraz Boga. Ten kluczowy punkt jest źródłem prawdziwej rewolucji etycznej. Biblia potwierdza świętą i nieskończoną wartość każdej istoty ludzkiej. @@ -1157,6 +1183,8 @@ Idea ludzkości rozwija się. Skutecznie zaczęto uważać, że istnieje tylko j :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Chrześcijaństwo i wolna gospodarka + Widzieliśmy, że chrześcijaństwo nakłada na ludzi moralny obowiązek pracy na rzecz poprawy świata. Bóg chce, aby człowiek był szczęśliwy, ale nie chce, aby jego dobro zostało osiągnięte na jego miejscu. Do chrześcijanina należy zatem walka ze złem moralnym, miłość bliźniego, pomoc ofiarom, krótko mówiąc, praca na rzecz bardziej sprawiedliwego i humanitarnego świata. Czy kapitalizm, czyli wolna gospodarka oparta na własności prywatnej i swobodzie zawierania umów, jest zgodny z chrześcijańskim obowiązkiem? @@ -1252,6 +1280,8 @@ Co więcej, jeśli dwie różne waluty korzystają z legalnego środka płatnicz :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Wojny religijne i oświecenie + Od czasów renesansu Europę miały pustoszyć wojny religijne. Tolerancja stała się zatem jedną z wielkich bitew Oświecenia. ![image](assets/pl/050.webp) @@ -1309,7 +1339,7 @@ W _Dziesiątym liście_, "O handlu", Voltaire opisuje francuską mentalność w ### Prawda wymaga wolności -We Francji nie brakowało jednak wielkich umysłów. Mało kto wie, że Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne, zanim został generalnym kontrolerem finansów za panowania Ludwika XVI, był przede wszystkim czołowym myślicielem. Był autorem mistrzowskiego traktatu o ekonomii politycznej, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), poprzedzającego _The Wealth of Nations_ Adama Smitha (1776). +We Francji nie brakowało jednak wielkich umysłów. Mało kto wie, że Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne, zanim został generalnym kontrolerem finansów za panowania Ludwika XVI, był przede wszystkim czołowym myślicielem. Był autorem mistrzowskiego traktatu o ekonomii politycznej, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), poprzedzającego _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ Adama Smitha (1776). ![image](assets/pl/052.webp) @@ -1338,6 +1368,8 @@ Innymi słowy, bycie tolerancyjnym nie oznacza wrogości wobec religii. Oznacza :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Początki liberalizmu gospodarczego + Liberalizm gospodarczy jest często kojarzony z tradycją anglosaską wywodzącą się od Adama Smitha, przeciwstawianą "liberalizmowi politycznemu", o którym mówi się, że wywodzi się z kontynentalnego Oświecenia, zwłaszcza we Francji. Pogląd ten jest błędny. @@ -1435,6 +1467,8 @@ Krótko mówiąc, jeśli każdy może swobodnie realizować swoje prywatne inter :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Trzy wydarzenia, które zmieniły historię + 1776 to rok, który często pozostaje niezauważony w podręcznikach historii. Jednak w trzech krajach, Francji, Szkocji i Ameryce Północnej, kilka wydarzeń pozostawi niezatarty ślad w historii wolności. @@ -1494,7 +1528,7 @@ Jest to również traktat filozoficzny, który pokazuje, w jaki sposób wolny i ### Manifest na rzecz wolności w Ameryce -W 1776 roku Anglik Thomas Paine opublikował w Ameryce zjadliwy pamflet krytykujący angielską monarchię i opowiadający się za niepodległością amerykańskich kolonistów: _Common Sense_. +W 1776 roku Anglik Thomas Paine opublikował w Ameryce zjadliwy pamflet krytykujący angielską monarchię i opowiadający się za niepodległością amerykańskich kolonistów: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/pl/059.webp) @@ -1583,6 +1617,8 @@ Idea spontanicznego porządku stanie się kluczową koncepcją w pracach Friedri :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularyzacja i społeczeństwo nowoczesne + Wielką nowością tego nowoczesnego okresu w historii Zachodu jest pojawienie się społeczeństwa, które organizuje się poza religijną zależnością. Nie oznacza to zaniku wiary religijnej czy śmierci Boga. Ale Bóg staje się sprawą prywatną, nie miesza się już ze sprawami politycznymi. Nie ma zaniku religii, ale detronizacja jej przewodniej roli. Staje się ona systemem indywidualnych przekonań. @@ -1707,7 +1743,7 @@ W Ameryce nie było ekonomicznego dirigisme, ani monetarnego bankructwa podobneg Dzięki Rousseau i Robespierre'owi Francuzi chcieli wierzyć, że naród lub powszechna wola ma nieograniczoną władzę i usprawiedliwia wszystko. Z faktu, że ludzie rządzili, wywnioskowano, że mieli wszelkie prawa. Istniała wyraźna sprzeczność między wielkimi zasadami rewolucji a środkami zastosowanymi do ich zwycięstwa. -Takie jest zresztą znaczenie uwagi Friedricha Hayeka w jego książce _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Takie jest zresztą znaczenie uwagi Friedricha Hayeka w jego książce _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Decydującym czynnikiem, który sprawił, że wysiłki rewolucji na rzecz promowania indywidualnej wolności okazały się daremne, było stworzenie iluzji, że skoro cała władza została przekazana ludziom, wszelkie środki ostrożności przeciwko nadużywaniu tej władzy stały się zbędne. @@ -1726,6 +1762,8 @@ Takie jest zresztą znaczenie uwagi Friedricha Hayeka w jego książce _The Cons :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Wolność starożytnych a wolność nowożytnych + Według Benjamina Constanta wolność w naszych współczesnych społeczeństwach nie może być już rozumiana w taki sposób, jak w społeczeństwach starożytnych, jako bezpośredni udział w sprawach miasta. @@ -1738,7 +1776,7 @@ Według Benjamina Constanta wolność w naszych współczesnych społeczeństwac W starożytności jednostka była suwerenna w sprawach publicznych, ale zniewolona we wszystkich swoich prywatnych relacjach. Poświęcenie indywidualnej wolności zostało zrekompensowane przez wykorzystanie praw politycznych: prawa do bezpośredniego korzystania z różnych części suwerenności, do obradowania na placu publicznym, do głosowania nad ustawami, do wydawania wyroków, do oceniania i osądzania sędziów. Jest to wolność polityczna i zbiorowa: -> Wolność starożytnych polegała na aktywnym i stałym uczestnictwie w zbiorowej władzy. Nasza wolność, z drugiej strony, musi polegać na spokojnym korzystaniu z prywatnej niezależności; wynika z tego, że musimy być znacznie bardziej przywiązani do naszej indywidualnej niezależności niż starożytni. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> Wolność starożytnych polegała na aktywnym i stałym uczestnictwie w zbiorowej władzy. Nasza wolność, z drugiej strony, musi polegać na spokojnym korzystaniu z prywatnej niezależności; wynika z tego, że musimy być znacznie bardziej przywiązani do naszej indywidualnej niezależności niż starożytni. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/pl/071.webp) @@ -1749,7 +1787,7 @@ Nowoczesna wolność to wolność obywatelska, która obejmuje wolność gospoda Tę definicję wolności można znaleźć u Johna Stuarta Milla: -> Jedyną wolnością, która zasługuje na to miano, jest ta polegająca na dążeniu do własnego dobra na swój własny sposób, o ile nie próbujemy pozbawiać innych ich dobra lub utrudniać im wysiłków zmierzających do jego osiągnięcia. (...) Ludzkość zyskuje więcej, pozwalając każdemu żyć tak, jak uważa za stosowne, niż zmuszając go do życia tak, jak wydaje się to dobre dla innych. (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> Jedyną wolnością, która zasługuje na to miano, jest ta polegająca na dążeniu do własnego dobra na swój własny sposób, o ile nie próbujemy pozbawiać innych ich dobra lub utrudniać im wysiłków zmierzających do jego osiągnięcia. (...) Ludzkość zyskuje więcej, pozwalając każdemu żyć tak, jak uważa za stosowne, niż zmuszając go do życia tak, jak wydaje się to dobre dla innych. (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/pl/072.webp) @@ -1800,6 +1838,8 @@ Innymi słowy, w wolnym społeczeństwie konieczne jest ustanowienie ścisłej g :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville i demokratyczny indywidualizm + Alexis de Tocqueville był wnikliwym obserwatorem demokracji i krytykiem demokratycznego indywidualizmu. @@ -1911,6 +1951,8 @@ Spójrzmy na cały świat. Które narody są najszczęśliwsze, najbardziej mora :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Krytyka XIX wieku + To właśnie w XIX wieku pojawiła się krytyka kapitalizmu, a w szczególności krytyka marksistowska. @@ -1957,6 +1999,8 @@ Rewolucja polityczna jest zatem według niego iluzją, o ile nie towarzyszy jej :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Odpowiedź szkoły austriackiej + Austriacka Szkoła Ekonomii, założona przez Carla Mengera pod koniec XIX wieku, od początku sprzeciwiała się teoriom Karola Marksa. @@ -2039,7 +2083,7 @@ Marksiści uważają, że socjalizm, system gospodarczy, w którym środki produ ![image](assets/pl/085.webp) -Już w 1922 roku, w swojej książce _Socialism_ Ludwig von Mises wykazał, że socjalizm doprowadziłby do powszechnych niedoborów, ponieważ centralni planiści nie byliby w stanie dokonywać dokładnych obliczeń ekonomicznych bez systemu cen zapewnianego przez rynek. +Już w 1922 roku, w swojej książce _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ Ludwig von Mises wykazał, że socjalizm doprowadziłby do powszechnych niedoborów, ponieważ centralni planiści nie byliby w stanie dokonywać dokładnych obliczeń ekonomicznych bez systemu cen zapewnianego przez rynek. ## Droga do poddaństwa @@ -2050,7 +2094,9 @@ Już w 1922 roku, w swojej książce _Socialism_ Ludwig von Mises wykazał, że :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Zaniepokojony wzrostem rządowego interwencjonizmu w gospodarkach zachodnich demokracji, Hayek napisał _Drogę do poddaństwa_ jako filozoficzną krytykę kolektywizmu, czy to z prawej, czy z lewej strony. Opublikowana w kilku milionach egzemplarzy, dzięki _Reader's Digest_, książka ta w znacznym stopniu przyczyniła się do sławy Hayeka w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +### Ostrzeżenie Hayeka przed kolektywizmem + +Zaniepokojony wzrostem rządowego interwencjonizmu w gospodarkach zachodnich demokracji, Hayek napisał _[Drogę do poddaństwa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ jako filozoficzną krytykę kolektywizmu, czy to z prawej, czy z lewej strony. Opublikowana w kilku milionach egzemplarzy, dzięki _Reader's Digest_, książka ta w znacznym stopniu przyczyniła się do sławy Hayeka w Stanach Zjednoczonych. ![image](assets/pl/086.webp) @@ -2113,6 +2159,8 @@ Podsumowując, Hayek wzywa swoich współczesnych do odwrócenia się od "szale :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Rewolucja keynesowska + Kapitalizm jest często oskarżany o bycie źródłem nakazu: "musimy zawsze produkować więcej" lub formuły: "konsumowanie jest dobre dla wzrostu" Jednak idee te nie wywodzą się z tradycyjnego kapitalizmu, ale z keynesizmu, który zdominował dziedzinę nauk ekonomicznych i klasę polityczną od lat trzydziestych XX wieku. @@ -2122,7 +2170,7 @@ Kapitalizm jest często oskarżany o bycie źródłem nakazu: "musimy zawsze pro ### Analiza kryzysu z 1929 r -Opublikowana w 1936 roku książka Johna Maynarda Keynesa: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, zmiotła wszystko na swojej drodze. Kwestionując przyczyny Wielkiego Kryzysu i sposoby wyjścia z niego, opisał nowy paradygmat ekonomiczny, który przekształcił pokolenia ekonomistów i polityków. +Opublikowana w 1936 roku książka Johna Maynarda Keynesa: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, zmiotła wszystko na swojej drodze. Kwestionując przyczyny Wielkiego Kryzysu i sposoby wyjścia z niego, opisał nowy paradygmat ekonomiczny, który przekształcił pokolenia ekonomistów i polityków. ![image](assets/pl/089.webp) @@ -2184,7 +2232,7 @@ Począwszy od 1958 roku, polityka naprawy francuskiej gospodarki, zainspirowana ![image](assets/pl/094.webp) -W _The Monetary Sin of the West_ z 1971 roku Rueff pisze: +W _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ z 1971 roku Rueff pisze: > To przez deficyt budżetowy ludzie tracą swoją wolność. @@ -2208,6 +2256,8 @@ W 1976 r. po raz ostatni zaatakował keynesizm w artykule dla gazety _Le Monde_. :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Pieniądz i cywilizacja + Pieniądz jest narzędziem, które pozwoliło ludziom wyjść poza barter, oszczędzać i koordynować działania na dużą skalę za pośrednictwem rynku. Umożliwił specjalizację pracy, przewagę komparatywną, zyski z handlu, kalkulację ekonomiczną. Bez pieniądza nie ma nowoczesnej cywilizacji. @@ -2269,7 +2319,7 @@ W lutym 1965 r., podczas telewizyjnej konferencji prasowej, generał de Gaulle, ### Rynek pieniężny bez monopolu państwa jest możliwy -W 1976 r. Hayek zaproponował alternatywę dla monopolu państwa na tworzenie walut: konkurencję między walutami. W swojej książce, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Denacjonalizacja pieniądza_), wyobraził sobie rynek monetarny bez monopolu państwa, na którym istniałoby kilka prywatnych walut. Tworzenie i zarządzanie różnymi walutami przez podmioty prywatne pozwoliłoby jednostkom wybrać najbardziej stabilną i niezawodną walutę, zachęcając w ten sposób do konkurencji i dyscypliny wśród emitentów. +W 1976 r. Hayek zaproponował alternatywę dla monopolu państwa na tworzenie walut: konkurencję między walutami. W swojej książce, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Denacjonalizacja pieniądza](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), wyobraził sobie rynek monetarny bez monopolu państwa, na którym istniałoby kilka prywatnych walut. Tworzenie i zarządzanie różnymi walutami przez podmioty prywatne pozwoliłoby jednostkom wybrać najbardziej stabilną i niezawodną walutę, zachęcając w ten sposób do konkurencji i dyscypliny wśród emitentów. ![image](assets/pl/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/pt.md b/courses/phi101/pt.md index 90511e03ae7..a440e1a7d50 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/pt.md +++ b/courses/phi101/pt.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Desde a Antiguidade até o Iluminismo, a liberdade ascendeu à medida que as soc :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introdução ao Curso + Bem-vindo ao curso PHI101! Este curso convida você a explorar a evolução da liberdade ao longo da história, analisando as principais correntes de pensamento que a moldaram. Você descobrirá como o conceito de liberdade foi construído ao longo dos séculos, seja em oposição ou em colaboração com o poder, através de uma jornada histórica que vai da Antiguidade aos debates contemporâneos. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Pronto para embarcar nesta jornada filosófica única em busca da liberdade? Vam :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Por Que Estudar a História da Liberdade? + Por que intitular este curso: uma história da liberdade? Porque precisamos entender a relação entre ideias e eventos, para melhor julgar nossa era e agir com discernimento. É no passado que encontramos os elementos para uma melhor compreensão do que é a liberdade e as razões pelas quais devemos valorizá-la. -> Quando o passado não ilumina mais o futuro, o espírito caminha na escuridão (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracia na América_.) +> Quando o passado não ilumina mais o futuro, o espírito caminha na escuridão (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracia na América](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/pt/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ Para Turgot e Say, discípulos de Quesnay, existe uma lei natural, independente A segunda filosofia é encontrada entre autores como Rousseau, Robespierre ou Kant, que encarnam a tradição republicana para a qual a soberania da vontade geral é a verdadeira fonte do direito. Contemporâneo de Quesnay, Rousseau é um anti-fisiocrata. Para ele, o legislador deve organizar a sociedade, como um mecânico que inventa uma máquina a partir da matéria inerte. ![image](assets/pt/007.webp) -> "Aquele que se atreve a empreender o estabelecimento de um povo", diz Rousseau, "deve se sentir capaz de mudar, por assim dizer, a natureza humana, de transformar cada indivíduo que, por si só, é um todo perfeito e solitário, em parte de um todo maior do qual este indivíduo recebe, de certa forma, sua vida e ser." (_Contrato Social_) +> "Aquele que se atreve a empreender o estabelecimento de um povo", diz Rousseau, "deve se sentir capaz de mudar, por assim dizer, a natureza humana, de transformar cada indivíduo que, por si só, é um todo perfeito e solitário, em parte de um todo maior do qual este indivíduo recebe, de certa forma, sua vida e ser." (_[Contrato Social](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Dessa perspectiva, a missão do legislador é organizar, modificar, até mesmo abolir a propriedade se ele considerar bom. Para Rousseau, a propriedade não é natural, mas convencional, como a própria sociedade. Por sua vez, Robespierre estabelece o princípio de que "A propriedade é o direito de todo cidadão de desfrutar e dispor da porção de bens garantida a ele por lei." Não existe direito natural à propriedade; existem apenas um número indefinido de arranjos possíveis e contingentes. @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ Dessa perspectiva, a missão do legislador é organizar, modificar, até mesmo a :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### O Mito do Legislador Providencial + Quando se abre os livros didáticos, Bastiat observou, aprende-se que a humanidade estaria condenada ao nada sem a intervenção do poder: > "Basta abrir, quase ao acaso, um livro de filosofia, política ou história para ver quão profundamente enraizada em nosso país está esta ideia, nascida dos estudos clássicos e mãe do Socialismo, de que a humanidade é uma matéria inerte recebendo do poder vida, organização, moralidade e riqueza; — ou pior, que a humanidade por si mesma tende para sua degradação e é apenas impedida nesta inclinação pela mão misteriosa do Legislador." ([_A Lei_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ Poucos dias antes de sua morte em Roma em 1850, Bastiat confidenciou ao seu amig :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### A História Escrita pelos Vencedores + É sabido, a história é escrita pelos vencedores. A atenção é frequentemente focada na conquista do poder, nas vidas dos líderes no poder e nos conflitos que os opõem àqueles que desejam tomar seu lugar. ![image](assets/pt/010.webp) @@ -213,6 +221,8 @@ Esta tese também é encontrada em uma obra monumental datada de 1983: _Direito :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### A Visão Socialista da História + No entanto, existe outra perspectiva sobre a história. Ela foi bastante bem-sucedida e por muito tempo contou com o apoio de intelectuais ocidentais e representantes do Sul Global. Esta é a visão socialista e marxista da história. ![imagem](assets/pt/013.webp) @@ -231,7 +241,7 @@ Esta análise reflete um mal-entendido sobre o valor excedente e a natureza coop ### A Revolução Industrial em Questão -Na verdade, a análise marxista distorce a realidade histórica da Revolução Industrial. Ludwig von Mises esclareceu essa questão em seu tratado de economia [_Ação Humana_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (veja especialmente o capítulo intitulado [Interpretação Popular da Revolução Industrial](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), bem como em uma série de palestras publicadas sob o título: [_Política Econômica: Pensamentos para Hoje e Amanhã_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Também vale a pena ler, A Mentalidade Anticapitalista [aqui](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) e [aqui](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Na verdade, a análise marxista distorce a realidade histórica da Revolução Industrial. Ludwig von Mises esclareceu essa questão em seu tratado de economia [_Ação Humana_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (veja especialmente o capítulo intitulado [Interpretação Popular da Revolução Industrial](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), bem como em uma série de palestras publicadas sob o título: [_Política Econômica: Pensamentos para Hoje e Amanhã_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Também vale a pena ler, A Mentalidade Anticapitalista [aqui](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) e [aqui](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![imagem](assets/pt/014.webp) Mises explica que os empregos nas fábricas, embora miseráveis pelos nossos padrões, representavam a melhor oportunidade possível para os trabalhadores da época. @@ -277,7 +287,9 @@ Em outras palavras, o grande "não-evento" que dominou o destino da Europa foi a :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -No último capítulo de _Anatomy of the State_ (traduzido para o francês como _L’anatomie de l’État_, pelas edições Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propõe uma teoria da história. Este capítulo muito curto é intitulado: História, uma corrida entre o poder do estado e o poder social. Segundo Rothbard, a história pode ser entendida como um conflito perpétuo entre dois princípios fundamentais: +### Poder do Estado versus Poder Social + +No último capítulo de _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (traduzido para o francês como _L’anatomie de l’État_, pelas edições Résurgence), Murray Rothbard propõe uma teoria da história. Este capítulo muito curto é intitulado: História, uma corrida entre o poder do estado e o poder social. Segundo Rothbard, a história pode ser entendida como um conflito perpétuo entre dois princípios fundamentais: ![image](assets/pt/017.webp) @@ -312,7 +324,7 @@ De acordo com Rothbard, a história não é um processo linear, mas sim uma osci Do século 17 ao século 19, em muitos países ocidentais, houve períodos de aceleração do poder social e um aumento correspondente na liberdade, paz e bem-estar material. Mas Rothbard nos lembra que o século 20 foi marcado por um ressurgimento do poder do Estado, com consequências terríveis: um aumento na escravidão, guerra e destruição: > Durante este século, a raça humana enfrenta, mais uma vez, o reinado virulento do Estado; o Estado agora armado com o poder criativo do homem, confiscado e pervertido para seus próprios fins. -> O que é, afinal, uma sociedade livre? É uma sociedade sem monopólio. Em sua obra de filosofia política, _Ética da Liberdade_ (1982), Rothbard responde: "uma sociedade na qual não há possibilidade legal de agressão coercitiva contra a pessoa ou propriedade de um indivíduo." É por isso que, segundo ele, a filosofia política, que deve definir os princípios de uma sociedade justa, se resume a uma única pergunta: "Quem possui legitimamente o quê?" +> O que é, afinal, uma sociedade livre? É uma sociedade sem monopólio. Em sua obra de filosofia política, _[Ética da Liberdade](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard responde: "uma sociedade na qual não há possibilidade legal de agressão coercitiva contra a pessoa ou propriedade de um indivíduo." É por isso que, segundo ele, a filosofia política, que deve definir os princípios de uma sociedade justa, se resume a uma única pergunta: "Quem possui legitimamente o quê?" > ![imagem](assets/pt/019.webp) Para Rothbard, a ordem social pode prevalecer se for o produto da generalização de procedimentos contratuais para a livre troca de direitos de propriedade, privatizando todas as atividades econômicas e até funções soberanas (banco central, tribunais) e recorrendo à competição entre agências de proteção. @@ -333,6 +345,8 @@ E ele acrescenta: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### O Legado da Democracia Ateniense + A experiência da democracia ateniense deixou uma marca duradoura na história do pensamento político e continua a inspirar ideais de democracia e participação cidadã no mundo de hoje. ![image](assets/pt/020.webp) @@ -424,6 +438,8 @@ O único meio que temos para nos aproximar da verdade são a crítica e a discus :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Um Império Cosmopolita + O Império Romano era uma vasta entidade cosmopolita. No seu auge, por volta de 117 d.C., era um imenso estado multiétnico e multilíngue: - No oeste, estendia-se da Grã-Bretanha (atual Inglaterra) até a Espanha, passando pela Gália (atual França) e o norte da África. @@ -525,6 +541,8 @@ Ao afirmar que a lei não pode ser reduzida apenas aos estatutos promulgados pel :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Declínio e Colapso + Por que Roma declinou e, finalmente, caiu? Muitos gostam de pensar que o Império Romano colapsou subitamente, sob o impacto das invasões bárbaras. No entanto, as causas do colapso do Império Romano devem ser encontradas muito antes, no imperialismo e no dirigismo econômico e monetário. @@ -598,6 +616,8 @@ E ele acrescenta: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### As Raízes Cristãs da Liberdade Individual + A ideia cristã de liberdade desenvolveu-se na teologia medieval de Santo Agostinho no século 4, até São Tomás de Aquino no século 13. Qual é essa ideia? ![imagem](assets/pt/037.webp) @@ -650,6 +670,8 @@ Segundo Santo Tomás: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### A Autonomia da Razão + Na Idade Média, razão e fé competem pelo acesso à verdade. Seguindo Abélard e Alberto Magno, Tomás de Aquino, no século XIII, optou por defender os direitos da razão e sua autonomia em relação à fé. ![image](assets/pt/040.webp) @@ -688,6 +710,8 @@ A partir de então, o racionalismo religioso prevaleceria definitivamente sobre :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### O Sistema Teológico-Político + Na Idade Média, a Igreja e as monarquias cristãs herdaram um modelo político do Império Romano, que os historiadores chamam de sistema teológico-político, significando um sistema onde o poder é sagrado, ou seja, onde o líder político é também um líder religioso. É por isso que as sociedades medievais são caracterizadas pelo unanimismo político-religioso. As bases do poder político fundamentam sua legitimidade, autoridade e unidade na fé Cristã (ou Muçulmana). Considera-se guardião da ortodoxia cultural e religiosa e trata como párias aqueles que se desviam dessa unanimidade. Neste contexto, mesmo que uma certa tolerância pudesse ser concedida àqueles que se desligam da visão cultural comum (como os Judeus), nenhum direito ao pluralismo poderia ser reconhecido para eles. Não foi até o final da Idade Média, com a conquista da América, que o problema das liberdades civis se tornou crucial para a Igreja e viu o surgimento de uma primeira filosofia do direito que afirmava e protegia as liberdades individuais, legitimava o pluralismo e condenava a coerção estatal. @@ -726,6 +750,8 @@ A tentação teocrática da Igreja também se choca com a teoria do "direito div :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### O Homem Criado à Imagem de Deus + O pensamento antigo subordinava o homem a um cosmos divino, isto é, a um universo perfeito do qual ele era apenas uma parte. O monoteísmo, por outro lado, afirma o valor infinitamente superior do homem sobre a natureza, na medida em que o homem é criado à imagem de Deus. Este ponto crucial está na origem de uma verdadeira revolução ética. A Bíblia afirma o valor sagrado e infinito de cada ser humano. É por isso que a ética bíblica muda nossa relação com o mal. Ela traz uma sensibilidade aguda e sem precedentes ao sofrimento humano. Portanto, nos encoraja a considerar como anormais e insuportáveis males que a humanidade até então havia encontrado perfeitamente suportáveis, especialmente o mal feito aos outros, aos fracos, aos inocentes. @@ -763,6 +789,8 @@ A ideia de humanidade progride. Efetivamente passou a ser considerado que existe :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### O Cristianismo e a Economia Livre + Vimos que o Cristianismo impõe um dever moral às pessoas de trabalhar para a melhoria do mundo. Deus quer que o homem seja feliz, mas não quer alcançar seu bem em seu lugar. Portanto, cabe ao cristão combater o mal moral, amar o próximo, ajudar as vítimas, em suma, trabalhar por um mundo mais justo e humano. O capitalismo, ou seja, a economia livre baseada na propriedade privada e na liberdade de contratos, é compatível com o dever cristão? Parte da resposta reside no fato de que o capitalismo teve origem em um contexto religioso, bem antes da Reforma Protestante. A outra parte da resposta consiste em observar o fato de que o capitalismo é o melhor meio de melhorar a condição material e moral dos indivíduos. Apenas uma economia livre, baseada nos direitos de propriedade e na cooperação voluntária, é capaz de elevar as pessoas de forma sustentável da miséria. @@ -831,6 +859,8 @@ Além disso, se duas moedas diferentes se beneficiam de curso legal, os agentes :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### As Guerras Religiosas e o Iluminismo + A partir do Renascimento, a Europa seria devastada por guerras religiosas. A tolerância, portanto, tornou-se uma das grandes batalhas do Iluminismo. ![image](assets/pt/050.webp) @@ -867,7 +897,7 @@ Na _Décima Carta_, "Sobre o Comércio", Voltaire descreve a mentalidade frances ### A Verdade Requer Liberdade -No entanto, a França não carecia de grandes mentes. É pouco conhecido, mas Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barão de Laulne foi antes de tudo um pensador líder antes de se tornar o Controlador Geral das Finanças sob Luís XVI. Ele foi o autor de um tratado magistral sobre economia política, _Reflexões sobre a Formação e Distribuição da Riqueza_ (1766), antecedendo _A Riqueza das Nações_ de Adam Smith (1776). +No entanto, a França não carecia de grandes mentes. É pouco conhecido, mas Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Barão de Laulne foi antes de tudo um pensador líder antes de se tornar o Controlador Geral das Finanças sob Luís XVI. Ele foi o autor de um tratado magistral sobre economia política, _Reflexões sobre a Formação e Distribuição da Riqueza_ (1766), antecedendo _[A Riqueza das Nações](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ de Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/pt/052.webp) Seus primeiros escritos refletem seu compromisso com a filosofia do Iluminismo. Em 1754, ele publicou suas _Cartas sobre a Tolerância Civil_ e em 1757, vários artigos escritos para _A Enciclopédia_ de Diderot e d'Alembert. @@ -885,6 +915,8 @@ Em outras palavras, ser tolerante não significa ser hostil à religião. Signif :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### As Origens do Liberalismo Econômico + O liberalismo econômico é frequentemente associado a uma tradição anglo-saxônica que vem de Adam Smith, contrastado com o "liberalismo político", que se diz originar do Iluminismo continental, particularmente na França. Esta visão é incorreta. ![image](assets/pt/053.webp) @@ -950,6 +982,8 @@ Em resumo, se todos podem livremente perseguir seu interesse privado em respeito :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Três Eventos Que Mudaram a História + 1776 é um ano que muitas vezes passa despercebido nos livros de história. Mas em três países, França, Escócia e América do Norte, vários eventos deixarão uma marca indelével na história da liberdade. ### A Desgraça de Turgot @@ -992,7 +1026,7 @@ Também é um tratado sobre filosofia, pois demonstra como a troca livre e volun ### Um Manifesto pela Liberdade na América -Em 1776, um inglês chamado Thomas Paine publicou na América um panfleto virulento criticando a monarquia inglesa e defendendo a independência dos colonos americanos: _Common Sense_ (Senso Comum). +Em 1776, um inglês chamado Thomas Paine publicou na América um panfleto virulento criticando a monarquia inglesa e defendendo a independência dos colonos americanos: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_ (Senso Comum). ![image](assets/pt/059.webp) @@ -1052,6 +1086,8 @@ Esta ideia de ordem espontânea se tornaria um conceito chave no trabalho de Fri :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Secularização e Sociedade Moderna + A grande novidade deste período moderno na história ocidental é o surgimento de uma sociedade que se organiza fora da dependência religiosa. Isso não significa o desaparecimento da crença religiosa ou a morte de Deus. Mas Deus se torna uma questão privada, não mais misturada com os assuntos políticos. Não há desaparecimento da religião, mas um destronamento de seu papel orientador. Torna-se um sistema de crenças individuais. A secularização do mundo ocidental não aconteceu da noite para o dia. Foi preparada por ideias. Como muitas vezes, a filosofia está na vanguarda das grandes mudanças culturais. @@ -1130,7 +1166,7 @@ Na América, não havia dirigismo econômico, nem uma falência monetária como Com Rousseau e Robespierre, os franceses queriam acreditar que a Nação ou a vontade geral tinha poder ilimitado e justificava tudo. Do fato de o povo governar, concluía-se que eles tinham todos os direitos. Havia claramente uma contradição entre os grandes princípios da Revolução e os meios empregados para fazê-los triunfar. -Isso é, aliás, o sentido da observação de Friedrich Hayek em seu livro _A Constituição da Liberdade_: +Isso é, aliás, o sentido da observação de Friedrich Hayek em seu livro _[A Constituição da Liberdade](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > O fator decisivo que tornou vãos os esforços da Revolução em favor da promoção da liberdade individual foi que ela criou a ilusão de que, na medida em que todo o poder havia sido entregue ao povo, todas as precauções contra o abuso desse poder haviam se tornado desnecessárias. @@ -1144,6 +1180,8 @@ Isso é, aliás, o sentido da observação de Friedrich Hayek em seu livro _A Co :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### A Liberdade Antiga versus a Liberdade Moderna + Segundo Benjamin Constant, a liberdade, em nossas sociedades modernas, não pode mais ser entendida à maneira das sociedades da Antiguidade como participação direta nos assuntos da cidade. ![image](assets/pt/070.webp) @@ -1151,14 +1189,14 @@ Segundo Benjamin Constant, a liberdade, em nossas sociedades modernas, não pode ### Liberdade na Vida Privada Na antiguidade, o indivíduo era soberano nos assuntos públicos, mas escravizado em todas as suas relações privadas. O sacrifício da liberdade individual era compensado pelo uso dos direitos políticos: o direito de exercer diretamente várias partes da soberania, de deliberar na praça pública, de votar em leis, de pronunciar julgamentos, de avaliar e julgar magistrados. É uma liberdade política e coletiva: -A liberdade dos Antigos consistia em uma participação ativa e constante no poder coletivo. Nossa liberdade, por outro lado, deve consistir no gozo pacífico da independência privada; segue-se que devemos ser muito mais apegados do que os antigos à nossa independência individual. (_Sobre a Liberdade dos Antigos Comparada com a dos Modernos_ (1819)) +A liberdade dos Antigos consistia em uma participação ativa e constante no poder coletivo. Nossa liberdade, por outro lado, deve consistir no gozo pacífico da independência privada; segue-se que devemos ser muito mais apegados do que os antigos à nossa independência individual. (_[Sobre a Liberdade dos Antigos Comparada com a dos Modernos](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/pt/071.webp) A liberdade moderna é a liberdade civil, que inclui a liberdade econômica e baseia-se no direito à privacidade. É o direito de não ser submetido a qualquer arbitrariedade, o direito à expressão, à reunião, ao movimento, ao culto e à indústria. Não há liberdade sem a possibilidade de escolher o próprio estilo de vida e valores, portanto, não há liberdade sem a possibilidade de se retirar da comunidade e, consequentemente, não há liberdade sem uma limitação do Estado para permitir a existência desse espaço privado. É uma liberdade que corresponde ao que os americanos chamam de direitos civis. Esta definição de liberdade é encontrada em John Stuart Mill: -> A única liberdade que merece esse nome, é a de buscar nosso próprio bem à nossa maneira, desde que não tentemos privar os outros do deles ou impedir seus esforços para obtê-lo. (...) A humanidade ganha mais permitindo que cada pessoa viva como achar melhor do que obrigando-as a viver como parece bom para os outros. (_Sobre a Liberdade_, 1859) +> A única liberdade que merece esse nome, é a de buscar nosso próprio bem à nossa maneira, desde que não tentemos privar os outros do deles ou impedir seus esforços para obtê-lo. (...) A humanidade ganha mais permitindo que cada pessoa viva como achar melhor do que obrigando-as a viver como parece bom para os outros. (_[Sobre a Liberdade](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/pt/072.webp) @@ -1194,6 +1232,8 @@ Em outras palavras, em uma sociedade livre, é necessário estabelecer um limite :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville e o Individualismo Democrático + Alexis de Tocqueville foi um observador atento da democracia e um crítico do individualismo democrático. ![image](assets/pt/074.webp) @@ -1267,6 +1307,8 @@ Olhe para o globo. Quais são os povos mais felizes, mais morais e mais pacífic :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### A Crítica do Século XIX + Foi durante o século 19 que a crítica ao capitalismo, e em particular a crítica marxista, emergiu. ![image](assets/pt/078.webp) @@ -1295,6 +1337,8 @@ A revolução política é, portanto, uma ilusão, segundo ele, enquanto não fo :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### A Resposta da Escola Austríaca + A Escola Austríaca de Economia, fundada por Carl Menger no final do século 19, se opôs às teorias de Karl Marx desde o início. ![image](assets/pt/081.webp) @@ -1345,7 +1389,7 @@ Os marxistas acreditam que o socialismo, um sistema econômico no qual os meios ![image](assets/pt/085.webp) -Já em 1922, em seu livro _Socialismo_, Ludwig von Mises demonstrou que o socialismo levaria a escassez generalizada, pois os planejadores centrais não seriam capazes de fazer cálculos econômicos precisos sem o sistema de preços fornecido pelo mercado. +Já em 1922, em seu livro _[Socialismo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_, Ludwig von Mises demonstrou que o socialismo levaria a escassez generalizada, pois os planejadores centrais não seriam capazes de fazer cálculos econômicos precisos sem o sistema de preços fornecido pelo mercado. ## O Caminho para a Servidão @@ -1353,7 +1397,9 @@ Já em 1922, em seu livro _Socialismo_, Ludwig von Mises demonstrou que o social :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Alarmado com o aumento do intervencionismo governamental nas economias das democracias ocidentais, Hayek escreveu _O Caminho para a Servidão_ como uma crítica filosófica ao coletivismo, seja da direita ou da esquerda. Publicado em vários milhões de cópias, graças ao _Reader’s Digest_, este livro contribuiu grandemente para a fama de Hayek nos Estados Unidos. +### O Alerta de Hayek Contra o Coletivismo + +Alarmado com o aumento do intervencionismo governamental nas economias das democracias ocidentais, Hayek escreveu _[O Caminho para a Servidão](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ como uma crítica filosófica ao coletivismo, seja da direita ou da esquerda. Publicado em vários milhões de cópias, graças ao _Reader’s Digest_, este livro contribuiu grandemente para a fama de Hayek nos Estados Unidos. ![image](assets/pt/086.webp) @@ -1396,13 +1442,15 @@ Em conclusão, Hayek apela aos seus contemporâneos para que se afastem da "louc :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### A Revolução Keynesiana + O capitalismo é frequentemente acusado de ser a fonte da injunção: "devemos sempre produzir mais", ou da fórmula: "consumir é bom para o crescimento". No entanto, essas ideias não se originam do capitalismo tradicional, mas do Keynesianismo, que dominou o campo da ciência econômica e a classe política desde a década de 1930. ![image](assets/pt/088.webp) ### A Análise da Crise de 1929 -Publicado em 1936, o livro de John Maynard Keynes: _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_ (A Teoria Geral do Emprego, do Juro e da Moeda), varreu tudo em seu caminho. Questionando as causas da Grande Depressão e os meios para emergir dela, ele descreve um novo paradigma econômico, que converteria gerações de economistas e políticos. +Publicado em 1936, o livro de John Maynard Keynes: _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_ (A Teoria Geral do Emprego, do Juro e da Moeda), varreu tudo em seu caminho. Questionando as causas da Grande Depressão e os meios para emergir dela, ele descreve um novo paradigma econômico, que converteria gerações de economistas e políticos. ![image](assets/pt/089.webp) @@ -1440,7 +1488,7 @@ A partir de 1958, uma política para retificar a economia francesa, inspirada po ![image](assets/pt/094.webp) -Em _O Pecado Monetário do Ocidente_, em 1971, Rueff escreve: +Em _[O Pecado Monetário do Ocidente](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, em 1971, Rueff escreve: > É através do déficit orçamentário que os homens perdem sua liberdade. @@ -1457,6 +1505,8 @@ Nenhuma religião se espalhou pelo mundo tão rapidamente quanto a do emprego. I :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Dinheiro e Civilização + O dinheiro é uma ferramenta que permitiu aos humanos ir além do escambo, poupar e coordenar em grande escala através do mercado. Tornou possível a especialização do trabalho, vantagens comparativas, ganhos comerciais, cálculo econômico. Sem dinheiro, não há civilização moderna. ### Ouro como o Padrão Global @@ -1502,7 +1552,7 @@ Em fevereiro de 1965, durante uma coletiva de imprensa televisionada, o General ### Um mercado monetário sem monopólio estatal é possível -Em 1976, Hayek propôs uma alternativa ao monopólio estatal sobre a criação de moeda: a concorrência entre moedas. Em seu livro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_A Desnacionalização do Dinheiro_), ele imaginou um mercado monetário sem monopólio estatal no qual várias moedas privadas existiriam. A criação e gestão de diferentes moedas por entidades privadas permitiria aos indivíduos escolher a moeda mais estável e confiável, incentivando assim a concorrência e a disciplina entre os emissores. +Em 1976, Hayek propôs uma alternativa ao monopólio estatal sobre a criação de moeda: a concorrência entre moedas. Em seu livro, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[A Desnacionalização do Dinheiro](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), ele imaginou um mercado monetário sem monopólio estatal no qual várias moedas privadas existiriam. A criação e gestão de diferentes moedas por entidades privadas permitiria aos indivíduos escolher a moeda mais estável e confiável, incentivando assim a concorrência e a disciplina entre os emissores. ![image](assets/pt/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 49c928eba5e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е целта на този курс? -answer: Всичко изброено по-горе -wrong_answers: - - Изучаване на историческите събития, които са белязали борбата за свобода - - Разберете връзката между идеите и събитията, за да действате по-добре днес - - Определете философските понятия, свързани със свободата -explanation: | - Целта на този курс е многостранна: да се изучат влиятелните исторически събития в борбата за свобода, да се анализира връзката между идеите и събитията, за да се осветлят настоящите ни действия, и да се изяснят философските концепции, свързани със свободата. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1fca6de2cc4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je účel tohoto kurzu? -answer: Vše výše uvedené -wrong_answers: - - Studovat historické události, které ovlivnily boj za svobodu - - Porozumět vztahu mezi myšlenkami a událostmi pro lepší jednání dnes - - Definovat filozofické koncepty související se svobodou -explanation: | - Účel tohoto kurzu je mnohostranný: jeho cílem je studovat vlivné historické události v boji za svobodu, analyzovat spojení mezi myšlenkami a událostmi, aby osvětlil naše současné činy, a objasnit filozofické koncepty související se svobodou. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b940f9b2ed3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist der Zweck dieses Kurses? -answer: Alles oben Genannte -wrong_answers: - - Die historischen Ereignisse studieren, die den Kampf um Freiheit geprägt haben - - Die Beziehung zwischen Ideen und Ereignissen verstehen, um heute besser handeln zu können - - Die philosophischen Konzepte in Bezug auf Freiheit definieren -explanation: | - Der Zweck dieses Kurses ist vielschichtig: Er zielt darauf ab, die einflussreichen historischen Ereignisse im Kampf um Freiheit zu studieren, die Verbindung zwischen Ideen und Ereignissen zu analysieren, um unsere aktuellen Handlungen zu erleuchten, und die philosophischen Konzepte in Bezug auf Freiheit zu klären. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/en.yml index 8e48e0a084e..04ab2f45cfe 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the purpose of this course? -answer: All of the above +answer: Understand the relationship between ideas and events to better act today wrong_answers: - Study the historical events that have marked the struggle for freedom - - Understand the relationship between ideas and events to better act today + - Memorize the key dates of political revolutions throughout history - Define the philosophical concepts related to freedom explanation: | - The purpose of this course is multifaceted: it aims to study the influential historical events in the struggle for freedom, to analyze the connection between ideas and events to enlighten our current actions, and to clarify the philosophical concepts related to freedom. + The central purpose of this course is to understand the relationship between ideas and events in order to judge our era more effectively and act with discernment, as stated from the very first chapter. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5fa72d3cb6d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es el propósito de este curso? -answer: Todas las anteriores -wrong_answers: - - Estudiar los eventos históricos que han marcado la lucha por la libertad - - Entender la relación entre ideas y eventos para actuar mejor hoy en día - - Definir los conceptos filosóficos relacionados con la libertad -explanation: | - El propósito de este curso es multifacético: busca estudiar los eventos históricos influyentes en la lucha por la libertad, analizar la conexión entre ideas y eventos para iluminar nuestras acciones actuales, y clarificar los conceptos filosóficos relacionados con la libertad. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d3fbb48d7f0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on selle kursuse eesmärk? -answer: Kõik eelnev -wrong_answers: - - Uurida ajaloolisi sündmusi, mis on märkinud võitlust vabaduse eest - - Mõista ideede ja sündmuste vahelist seost, et paremini tegutseda tänapäeval - - Määratleda filosoofilised kontseptsioonid, mis on seotud vabadusega -explanation: | - Selle kursuse eesmärk on mitmekülgne: see eesmärk on uurida mõjukaid ajaloolisi sündmusi võitluses vabaduse eest, analüüsida ideede ja sündmuste vahelist seost, et valgustada meie praeguseid tegusid, ning selgitada vabadusega seotud filosoofilisi kontseptsioone. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ea8c0f8fa33..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: هدف این دوره چیست؟ -answer: همه موارد فوق -wrong_answers: - - مطالعه رویدادهای تاریخی که مبارزه برای آزادی را رقم زده‌اند - - درک رابطه بین ایده‌ها و رویدادها برای عملکرد بهتر امروز - - تعریف مفاهیم فلسفی مرتبط با آزادی -explanation: | - هدف این دوره چندوجهی است: هدف آن مطالعه رویدادهای تاریخی تأثیرگذار در مبارزه برای آزادی، تحلیل ارتباط بین ایده‌ها و رویدادها برای روشن کردن اقدامات کنونی ما، و روشن کردن مفاهیم فلسفی مرتبط با آزادی است. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 04e0ccd1ccd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on tämän kurssin tarkoitus? -answer: Kaikki yllä mainitut -wrong_answers: - - Tutkia vapauden kamppailun merkittäviä historiallisia tapahtumia - - Ymmärtää ideoiden ja tapahtumien välinen suhde toimimisen parantamiseksi tänään - - Määritellä vapautta koskevat filosofiset käsitteet -explanation: | - Tämän kurssin tarkoitus on monitahoinen: se pyrkii tutkimaan vapauden kamppailussa vaikuttavia historiallisia tapahtumia, analysoimaan ideoiden ja tapahtumien välistä yhteyttä valaistakseen nykyisiä toimiamme, sekä selventämään vapautta koskevia filosofisia käsitteitä. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fr.yml index 95b5769bda5..77bc4fb724d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/fr.yml @@ -1,10 +1,9 @@ question: Quel est le but de ce cours ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: Comprendre la relation entre les idées et les événements pour mieux agir aujourd'hui wrong_answers: - Étudier les événements historiques qui ont marqué la lutte pour la liberté. - - Comprendre la relation entre les idées et les événements pour mieux agir aujourd'hui. + - Mémoriser les dates clés des révolutions politiques à travers l'histoire. - Définir les concepts philosophiques liés à la liberté. explanation: | - Le but de ce cours est multiple, il vise à étudier les événements historiques influents dans la lutte pour la liberté, à analyser la connexion entre idées et événements pour éclairer nos actions actuelles, - et à clarifier les concepts philosophiques relatifs à la liberté. -reviewed: true + L'objectif central de ce cours est de comprendre la relation entre les idées et les événements afin de mieux juger notre époque et agir avec discernement, comme cela est énoncé dès le premier chapitre. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 10387b1fb4f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: इस पाठ्यक्रम का उद्देश्य क्या है? -answer: ऊपर के सभी -wrong_answers: - - स्वतंत्रता संग्राम की ऐतिहासिक घटनाओं का अध्ययन करें - - आज बेहतर कार्य करने के लिए विचारों और घटनाओं के बीच संबंध को समझें - - स्वतंत्रता से संबंधित दार्शनिक अवधारणाओं को परिभाषित करें -explanation: | - इस पाठ्यक्रम का उद्देश्य बहुआयामी है: इसका उद्देश्य स्वतंत्रता के संघर्ष में प्रभावशाली ऐतिहासिक घटनाओं का अध्ययन करना, हमारे वर्तमान कार्यों को प्रबुद्ध करने के लिए विचारों और घटनाओं के बीच संबंध का विश्लेषण करना और स्वतंत्रता से संबंधित दार्शनिक अवधारणाओं को स्पष्ट करना है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aec76f1eeda..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa tujuan dari kursus ini? -answer: Semua di atas -wrong_answers: - - Mempelajari peristiwa historis yang telah menandai perjuangan untuk kebebasan - - Memahami hubungan antara ide dan peristiwa untuk bertindak lebih baik hari ini - - Mendefinisikan konsep-konsep filosofis yang terkait dengan kebebasan -explanation: | - Tujuan dari kursus ini adalah multifaset: bertujuan untuk mempelajari peristiwa historis berpengaruh dalam perjuangan untuk kebebasan, menganalisis koneksi antara ide dan peristiwa untuk menerangi tindakan kita saat ini, dan menjelaskan konsep-konsep filosofis yang terkait dengan kebebasan. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e7d18864b94..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è lo scopo di questo corso? -answer: Tutte le opzioni sopra indicate -wrong_answers: - - Studiare gli eventi storici che hanno segnato la lotta per la libertà - - Comprendere la relazione tra idee ed eventi per agire meglio oggi - - Definire i concetti filosofici legati alla libertà -explanation: | - Lo scopo di questo corso è multifacettato: mira a studiare gli eventi storici influenti nella lotta per la libertà, analizzare la connessione tra idee ed eventi per illuminare le nostre azioni attuali e chiarire i concetti filosofici legati alla libertà. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 93cdaba028f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: このコースの目的は何ですか？ -answer: 上記すべて -wrong_answers: - - 自由を求める闘争において重要な歴史的出来事を学ぶ - - 現在の行動をよりよく行うために、アイデアと出来事の関係を理解する - - 自由に関連する哲学的概念を定義する -explanation: | - このコースの目的は多面的です：自由を求める闘争における影響力のある歴史的出来事を研究し、現在の行動を啓発するためにアイデアと出来事のつながりを分析し、自由に関連する哲学的概念を明確にすることを目指しています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4404ba3f6cd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 이 과정의 목적은 무엇인가요? -answer: 위의 모든 사항 -wrong_answers: - - 자유를 위한 투쟁을 상징하는 역사적 사건에 대해 알아보세요 - - 아이디어와 이벤트 간의 관계를 이해하여 오늘 더 나은 행동을 취하세요 - - 자유와 관련된 철학적 개념 정의하기 -explanation: | - 이 강좌의 목적은 자유를 위한 투쟁에서 영향력 있는 역사적 사건을 연구하고, 사상과 사건의 연관성을 분석하여 현재 우리의 행동을 깨우치고, 자유와 관련된 철학적 개념을 명확히 하는 등 다면적인 것입니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d38b14ef6ae..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er formålet med dette kurset? -answer: Alt ovenfor -wrong_answers: - - Studere de historiske hendelsene som har preget kampen for frihet - - Forstå forholdet mellom ideer og hendelser for å bedre handle i dag - - Definere de filosofiske konseptene relatert til frihet -explanation: | - Formålet med dette kurset er mangefasettert: det sikter mot å studere de innflytelsesrike historiske hendelsene i kampen for frihet, analysere forbindelsen mellom ideer og hendelser for å opplyse våre nåværende handlinger, og klargjøre de filosofiske konseptene relatert til frihet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8a568796de0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is het doel van deze cursus? -answer: Alle bovenstaande -wrong_answers: - - De historische gebeurtenissen bestuderen die de strijd voor vrijheid hebben gemarkeerd - - De relatie tussen ideeën en gebeurtenissen begrijpen om vandaag beter te handelen - - De filosofische concepten met betrekking tot vrijheid definiëren -explanation: | - Het doel van deze cursus is veelzijdig: het bestuderen van invloedrijke historische gebeurtenissen in de strijd voor vrijheid, het analyseren van het verband tussen ideeën en gebeurtenissen om ons huidige handelen te verduidelijken en het verduidelijken van filosofische concepten met betrekking tot vrijheid. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cd148536a05..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest cel tego kursu? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe -wrong_answers: - - Badanie wydarzeń historycznych, które naznaczyły walkę o wolność - - Zrozumienie związku między ideami i wydarzeniami w celu lepszego działania w dzisiejszych czasach - - Zdefiniowanie pojęć filozoficznych związanych z wolnością -explanation: | - Cel tego kursu jest wielopłaszczyznowy: ma on na celu zbadanie wpływowych wydarzeń historycznych w walce o wolność, przeanalizowanie związku między ideami i wydarzeniami w celu oświecenia naszych obecnych działań oraz wyjaśnienie filozoficznych pojęć związanych z wolnością. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 171efa0ea84..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é o propósito deste curso? -answer: Todos os itens acima -wrong_answers: - - Estudar os eventos históricos que marcaram a luta pela liberdade - - Entender a relação entre ideias e eventos para agir melhor hoje - - Definir os conceitos filosóficos relacionados à liberdade -explanation: | - O propósito deste curso é multifacetado: visa estudar os eventos históricos influentes na luta pela liberdade, analisar a conexão entre ideias e eventos para iluminar nossas ações atuais, e esclarecer os conceitos filosóficos relacionados à liberdade. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7142cb9fe50..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: None iyo nyigisho ifise intumbero iyihe? -answer: Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -wrong_answers: - - Niwige ivyabaye muri kahise vyagaragaje urugamba rwo kwidegemvya . - - Gutahura isano hagati y'ivyiyumviro n'ibintu kugira ngo ukore neza uno musi - - Sigura ivyiyumviro vya filozofiya bijanye n'umwidegemvyo -explanation: | - Intumbero y’iyi nyigisho ni myinshi: igamije kwiga ibintu vyabaye mu mateka bifise akosho kanini mu rugamba rwo kurondera umwidegemvyo, gusuzuma isano riri hagati y’ivyiyumviro n’ibintu vyabaye kugira ngo umurikire ibikorwa vyacu vy’ubu, no gutomora ivyiyumviro vya filozofiya bijanye n’umwidegemvyo. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cb46ecfd452..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какова цель этого курса? -answer: Все вышеперечисленное -wrong_answers: - - Изучить исторические события, которые оставили отметину на борьбе за свободу - - Понять связь между идеями и событиями для лучшего действия в настоящем - - Определить философские концепции, связанные со свободой -explanation: | - Цель этого курса многогранна: он направлен на изучение влиятельных исторических событий в борьбе за свободу, анализ связи между идеями и событиями для освещения наших текущих действий, а также на разъяснение философских концепций, связанных со свободой. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4542df94080..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je svrha ovog kursa? -answer: Sve od navedenog -wrong_answers: - - Proučavanje istorijskih događaja koji su obeležili borbu za slobodu - - Razumeti odnos između ideja i događaja kako bi se bolje delovalo danas - - Definišite filozofske pojmove povezane sa slobodom. -explanation: | - Svrha ovog kursa je višestruka: ima za cilj proučavanje uticajnih istorijskih događaja u borbi za slobodu, analizu veze između ideja i događaja kako bi se osvetlila naša trenutna delovanja, i razjašnjavanje filozofskih pojmova vezanih za slobodu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bfac48b3816..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är syftet med den här kursen? -answer: Alla ovanstående -wrong_answers: - - Studera de historiska händelser som har präglat kampen för frihet - - Förstå sambandet mellan idéer och händelser för att bättre kunna agera idag - - Definiera de filosofiska begrepp som är relaterade till frihet -explanation: | - Syftet med denna kurs är mångfacetterat: den syftar till att studera de inflytelserika historiska händelserna i kampen för frihet, att analysera sambandet mellan idéer och händelser för att upplysa våra nuvarande handlingar och att klargöra de filosofiska begrepp som är relaterade till frihet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 591a5ac292e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni nini madhumuni ya kozi hii? -answer: Yote ya hapo juu -wrong_answers: - - Jifunze matukio ya kihistoria ambayo yameashiria mapambano ya uhuru - - Elewa uhusiano kati ya mawazo na matukio ili kutenda vyema leo - - Fafanua dhana za kifalsafa zinazohusiana na uhuru -explanation: | - Madhumuni ya kozi hii ni mengi: inalenga kusoma matukio ya kihistoria yenye ushawishi katika mapambano ya uhuru, kuchambua uhusiano kati ya mawazo na matukio ili kuangaza matendo yetu ya sasa, na kufafanua dhana za kifalsafa zinazohusiana na uhuru. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 89ffc042560..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: วัตถุประสงค์ของหลักสูตรนี้คืออะไร? -answer: ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -wrong_answers: - - ศึกษาถึงเหตุการณ์ทางประวัติศาสตร์ที่ได้สร้างเครื่องหมายในการต่อสู้เพื่อเสรีภาพ - - ทำความเข้าใจความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างแนวคิดและเหตุการณ์เพื่อการกระทำที่ดียิ่งขึ้นในวันนี้ - - กำหนดแนวคิดทางปรัชญาที่เกี่ยวข้องกับเสรีภาพ -explanation: | - วัตถุประสงค์ของหลักสูตรนี้มีหลายด้าน: มุ่งศึกษาถึงเหตุการณ์ทางประวัติศาสตร์ที่มีอิทธิพลในการต่อสู้เพื่อเสรีภาพ วิเคราะห์ความเชื่อมโยงระหว่างแนวคิดและเหตุการณ์เพื่อให้ความกระจ่างแก่การกระทำในปัจจุบันของเรา และชี้แจงแนวคิดทางปรัชญาที่เกี่ยวข้องกับเสรีภาพ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 98ded78b2e1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Bu kursun amacı nedir? -answer: Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -wrong_answers: - - Özgürlük mücadelesine damgasını vuran tarihi olayları incelemek - - Bugün daha iyi hareket edebilmek için fikirler ve olaylar arasındaki ilişkiyi anlamak - - Özgürlükle ilgili felsefi kavramları tanımlayabilme -explanation: | - Bu dersin amacı çok yönlüdür: özgürlük mücadelesinde etkili olan tarihsel olayları incelemek, güncel eylemlerimize ışık tutmak için fikirler ve olaylar arasındaki bağlantıyı analiz etmek ve özgürlükle ilgili felsefi kavramları açıklığa kavuşturmak. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aa8d43eecd2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mục đích của khóa học này là gì? -answer: Tất cả những điều trên -wrong_answers: - - Nghiên cứu các sự kiện lịch sử đã đánh dấu cuộc đấu tranh cho tự do - - Hiểu mối quan hệ giữa ý tưởng và sự kiện để hành động tốt hơn trong hiện tại - - Định nghĩa các khái niệm triết học liên quan đến tự do -explanation: | - Mục đích của khóa học này là đa diện: nó nhằm mục đích nghiên cứu các sự kiện lịch sử có ảnh hưởng trong cuộc đấu tranh cho tự do, phân tích mối liên kết giữa ý tưởng và sự kiện để soi sáng cho hành động của chúng ta hiện nay, và làm rõ các khái niệm triết học liên quan đến tự do. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 53fb8bdd8a2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 这门课程的目的是什么？ -answer: 以上所有 -wrong_answers: - - 研究标志着争取自由斗争的历史事件 - - 理解思想与事件之间的关系，以便更好地指导今天的行动 - - 定义与自由相关的哲学概念 -explanation: - 这门课程的目的是多方面的：旨在研究在争取自由的斗争中具有影响力的历史事件，分析思想与事件之间的联系以启迪我们当前的行动，并阐明与自由相关的哲学概念。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aeb9705c860..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/000/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 本課程的目的是什麼？ -answer: 以上皆是 -wrong_answers: - - 研究標誌著自由奮鬥的歷史事件 - - 瞭解想法與事件之間的關係，以便今天更好地採取行動 - - 定義與自由相關的哲學概念 -explanation: | - 本課程的目的是多方面的：旨在研究在爭取自由的鬥爭中具有影響力的歷史事件，分析思想與事件之間的聯繫以啟發我們當前的行動，以及闡明與自由相關的哲學概念。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0154489144b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е разликата между история и философия? -answer: Всички останали отговори -wrong_answers: - - Историята описва миналото, а философията го съди - - Историята е фактическа, а философията - нормативна - - Историята се фокусира върху събитията, а философията - върху понятията -explanation: | - Разликата между историята и философията се състои в съответните им подходи: историята се концентрира върху описанието и анализа на минали събития, докато философията се стреми да съди, тълкува и установява норми въз основа на абстрактни понятия. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dd700b53181..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je rozdíl mezi historií a filosofií? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi -wrong_answers: - - Historie popisuje minulost, zatímco filosofie ji hodnotí - - Historie je faktická, zatímco filosofie je normativní - - Historie se zaměřuje na události, zatímco filosofie se zaměřuje na koncepty -explanation: | - Rozdíl mezi historií a filosofií spočívá v jejich přístupech: historie se soustředí na popis a analýzu minulých událostí, zatímco filosofie se snaží hodnotit, interpretovat a stanovovat normy na základě abstraktních konceptů. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 16182df8676..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist der Unterschied zwischen Geschichte und Philosophie? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten -wrong_answers: - - Geschichte beschreibt die Vergangenheit, während Philosophie sie beurteilt - - Geschichte ist faktisch, während Philosophie normativ ist - - Geschichte konzentriert sich auf Ereignisse, während Philosophie sich auf Konzepte konzentriert -explanation: | - Der Unterschied zwischen Geschichte und Philosophie liegt in ihren jeweiligen Ansätzen: Geschichte konzentriert sich auf die Beschreibung und Analyse vergangener Ereignisse, während Philosophie darauf abzielt, zu beurteilen, zu interpretieren und Normen auf der Basis von abstrakten Konzepten zu etablieren. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/en.yml index 71e7cc31290..84b5a88e177 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the difference between history and philosophy? -answer: All the other answers +answer: History is factual, while philosophy is normative wrong_answers: - History describes the past while philosophy judges it - - History is factual, while philosophy is normative + - History relies on empirical evidence, while philosophy relies on mathematical proofs - History focuses on events, while philosophy focuses on concepts explanation: | - The difference between history and philosophy lies in their respective approaches: history concentrates on describing and analyzing past events, while philosophy seeks to judge, interpret, and establish norms based on abstract concepts. + The key difference highlighted in the course is that political philosophy is normative, prescribing values and judging human actions by a criterion of justice, while history and political science are descriptive, focusing on events and institutions without making value judgments. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ddb67e76916..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre historia y filosofía? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas -wrong_answers: - - La historia describe el pasado mientras que la filosofía lo juzga - - La historia es factual mientras que la filosofía es normativa - - La historia se centra en los eventos mientras que la filosofía se centra en los conceptos -explanation: | - La diferencia entre historia y filosofía radica en sus respectivos enfoques: la historia se concentra en describir y analizar eventos pasados, mientras que la filosofía busca juzgar, interpretar y establecer normas basadas en conceptos abstractos. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index de0720b63b7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis vahe on ajalool ja filosoofial? -answer: Kõik teised vastused -wrong_answers: - - Ajalugu kirjeldab minevikku, samas kui filosoofia hindab seda - - Ajalugu on faktipõhine, samas kui filosoofia on normatiivne - - Ajalugu keskendub sündmustele, samas kui filosoofia keskendub kontseptsioonidele -explanation: | - Erinevus ajaloo ja filosoofia vahel seisneb nende vastavates lähenemistes: ajalugu keskendub minevikusündmuste kirjeldamisele ja analüüsimisele, samas kui filosoofia püüab hinnata, tõlgendada ja kehtestada norme abstraktsete kontseptsioonide põhjal. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2f1d3323be9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: تفاوت بین تاریخ و فلسفه چیست؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر -wrong_answers: - - تاریخ گذشته را توصیف می‌کند در حالی که فلسفه آن را قضاوت می‌کند - - تاریخ واقعی است در حالی که فلسفه هنجاری است - - تاریخ بر رویدادها تمرکز دارد در حالی که فلسفه بر مفاهیم تمرکز دارد -explanation: | - تفاوت بین تاریخ و فلسفه در رویکردهای مربوطه آن‌ها نهفته است: تاریخ بر توصیف و تحلیل رویدادهای گذشته تمرکز دارد، در حالی که فلسفه به دنبال قضاوت، تفسیر و ایجاد هنجارها بر اساس مفاهیم انتزاعی است. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 88d95a99ff1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on ero historian ja filosofian välillä? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset -wrong_answers: - - Historia kuvailee menneisyyttä, kun taas filosofia arvioi sitä - - Historia on faktaa, kun taas filosofia on normatiivista - - Historia keskittyy tapahtumiin, kun taas filosofia keskittyy käsitteisiin -explanation: | - Ero historian ja filosofian välillä piilee niiden lähestymistavoissa: historia keskittyy kuvailemaan ja analysoimaan menneitä tapahtumia, kun taas filosofia pyrkii arvioimaan, tulkitsemaan ja vahvistamaan normeja abstraktien käsitteiden pohjalta. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fr.yml index 7cadd512310..15bf4f237a0 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la différence entre l'histoire et la philosophie ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: L'histoire est factuelle, tandis que la philosophie est normative. wrong_answers: - L'histoire décrit le passé tandis que la philosophie le juge. - - L'histoire est factuelle tandis que la philosophie est normative. + - L'histoire repose sur des preuves empiriques, tandis que la philosophie repose sur des preuves mathématiques. - L'histoire s'intéresse aux événements tandis que la philosophie s'intéresse aux concepts. explanation: | - La différence entre l'histoire et la philosophie réside dans leur approche respective, l'histoire se concentre sur la description et l'analyse des événements passés, tandis que la philosophie cherche à juger, interpréter et établir des normes basées sur des concepts abstraits. -reviewed: true + La différence clé soulignée dans le cours est que la philosophie politique est normative, prescrivant des valeurs et jugeant les actions humaines selon un critère de justice, tandis que l'histoire et la science politique sont descriptives, se concentrant sur les événements et les institutions sans porter de jugements de valeur. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a1a7da34cbd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: इतिहास और दर्शन में क्या अंतर है? -answer: अन्य सभी उत्तर -wrong_answers: - - इतिहास अतीत का वर्णन करता है जबकि दर्शन उसका न्याय करता है - - इतिहास तथ्यात्मक है जबकि दर्शन मानक है - - इतिहास घटनाओं पर केंद्रित होता है जबकि दर्शन अवधारणाओं पर केंद्रित होता है -explanation: | - इतिहास और दर्शन के बीच अंतर उनके संबंधित दृष्टिकोणों में निहित है: इतिहास अतीत की घटनाओं का वर्णन और विश्लेषण करने पर ध्यान केंद्रित करता है, जबकि दर्शन अमूर्त अवधारणाओं के आधार पर न्याय, व्याख्या और मानदंड स्थापित करने का प्रयास करता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6427be84fa1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa perbedaan antara sejarah dan filsafat? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya -wrong_answers: - - Sejarah mendeskripsikan masa lalu sementara filsafat menilainya - - Sejarah bersifat faktual sementara filsafat bersifat normatif - - Sejarah berfokus pada peristiwa sementara filsafat berfokus pada konsep -explanation: | - Perbedaan antara sejarah dan filsafat terletak pada pendekatan masing-masing: sejarah berkonsentrasi pada mendeskripsikan dan menganalisis peristiwa masa lalu, sementara filsafat berusaha untuk menilai, menafsirkan, dan menetapkan norma berdasarkan konsep abstrak. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a15b27d1073..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la differenza tra storia e filosofia? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte -wrong_answers: - - La storia descrive il passato mentre la filosofia lo giudica - - La storia è fattuale mentre la filosofia è normativa - - La storia si concentra sugli eventi mentre la filosofia sui concetti -explanation: | - La differenza tra storia e filosofia risiede nei loro rispettivi approcci: la storia si concentra sulla descrizione e analisi degli eventi passati, mentre la filosofia cerca di giudicare, interpretare e stabilire norme basate su concetti astratti. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 834e518f19a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 歴史と哲学の違いは何ですか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答 -wrong_answers: - - 歴史は過去を記述する一方で、哲学はそれを評価します - - 歴史は事実に基づいているのに対し、哲学は規範的です - - 歴史は出来事に焦点を当てるのに対し、哲学は概念に焦点を当てます -explanation: | - 歴史と哲学の違いは、それぞれのアプローチにあります：歴史は過去の出来事を記述し分析することに集中しているのに対し、哲学は抽象的な概念に基づいて判断し、解釈し、規範を確立しようとします。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 25b29b6ed29..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 역사와 철학의 차이점은 무엇인가요? -answer: 다른 모든 답변 -wrong_answers: - - 역사는 과거를 설명하는 반면 철학은 과거를 판단합니다 - - 역사는 사실이지만 철학은 규범입니다 - - 역사는 사건에 초점을 맞추고 철학은 개념에 초점을 맞춥니다 -explanation: | - 역사와 철학의 차이점은 각각의 접근 방식에 있습니다. 역사는 과거의 사건을 기술하고 분석하는 데 집중하는 반면, 철학은 추상적인 개념을 바탕으로 판단하고 해석하며 규범을 확립하고자 합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 02cd0df018c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er forskjellen mellom historie og filosofi? -answer: Alle de andre svarene -wrong_answers: - - Historie beskriver fortiden mens filosofi bedømmer den - - Historie er faktabasert mens filosofi er normativ - - Historie fokuserer på hendelser mens filosofi fokuserer på konsepter -explanation: | - Forskjellen mellom historie og filosofi ligger i deres respektive tilnærminger: historie konsentrerer seg om å beskrive og analysere tidligere hendelser, mens filosofi søker å dømme, tolke og etablere normer basert på abstrakte konsepter. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2c42f8fb5af..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is het verschil tussen geschiedenis en filosofie? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden -wrong_answers: - - Geschiedenis beschrijft het verleden terwijl filosofie het beoordeelt - - Geschiedenis is feitelijk, terwijl filosofie normatief is - - Geschiedenis richt zich op gebeurtenissen, terwijl filosofie zich richt op concepten -explanation: | - Het verschil tussen geschiedenis en filosofie ligt in hun respectievelijke benaderingen: geschiedenis concentreert zich op het beschrijven en analyseren van gebeurtenissen in het verleden, terwijl filosofie probeert te oordelen, te interpreteren en normen vast te stellen op basis van abstracte concepten. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f20478814ea..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaka jest różnica między historią a filozofią? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi -wrong_answers: - - Historia opisuje przeszłość, podczas gdy filozofia ją osądza - - Historia jest faktem, podczas gdy filozofia jest normatywna - - Historia koncentruje się na wydarzeniach, podczas gdy filozofia skupia się na koncepcjach -explanation: | - Różnica między historią a filozofią polega na ich podejściu: historia koncentruje się na opisywaniu i analizowaniu przeszłych wydarzeń, podczas gdy filozofia stara się oceniać, interpretować i ustanawiać normy oparte na abstrakcyjnych pojęciach. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f79ec103c22..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a diferença entre história e filosofia? -answer: Todas as outras respostas -wrong_answers: - - História descreve o passado enquanto filosofia o julga - - História é factual enquanto filosofia é normativa - - História foca em eventos enquanto filosofia foca em conceitos -explanation: | - A diferença entre história e filosofia reside em suas respectivas abordagens: a história concentra-se em descrever e analisar eventos passados, enquanto a filosofia busca julgar, interpretar e estabelecer normas com base em conceitos abstratos. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7b5cb0565c8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni itandukaniro irihe riri hagati y’amateka n’ubuhinga bwa filozofiya? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose -wrong_answers: - - Amateka adondora kahise mu gihe filozofiya ari yo ayicira urubanza . - - Amateka ni ukuri, mu gihe filozofiya ari amategeko - - Amateka yibanda ku bintu vyabaye, mu gihe filozofiya yibanda ku vyiyumviro -explanation: | - Itandukaniro hagati y’amateka na filozofiya riri mu buryo bwavyo: amateka yibanda ku kudondora no gusuzuma ivyabaye kera, mu gihe filozofiya irondera gucira urubanza, gusobanura no gushinga amategeko ashingiye ku vyiyumviro bitaboneka. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 931092dd060..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: В чем разница между историей и философией? -answer: Все остальные ответы -wrong_answers: - - История описывает прошлое, в то время как философия судит о нем - - История фактическая, в то время как философия нормативная - - История сосредоточена на событиях, в то время как философия сосредоточена на концепциях -explanation: | - Разница между историей и философией заключается в их соответствующих подходах: история концентрируется на описании и анализе прошлых событий, в то время как философия стремится судить, интерпретировать и устанавливать нормы на основе абстрактных концепций. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 553d5128264..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je razlika između istorije i filozofije? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori -wrong_answers: - - Istorija opisuje prošlost dok je filozofija prosuđuje - - Istorija je činjenična dok je filozofija normativna - - Istorija se fokusira na događaje dok se filozofija fokusira na pojmove -explanation: | - Razlika između istorije i filozofije leži u njihovim odgovarajućim pristupima: istorija se fokusira na opisivanje i analiziranje prošlih događaja, dok filozofija nastoji da sudi, tumači i uspostavlja norme na osnovu apstraktnih pojmova. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c8b2862b35b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är skillnaden mellan historia och filosofi? -answer: Alla de andra svaren -wrong_answers: - - Historia beskriver det förflutna medan filosofi dömer det - - Historia är faktabaserad, medan filosofi är normativ - - Historia fokuserar på händelser, medan filosofi fokuserar på begrepp -explanation: | - Skillnaden mellan historia och filosofi ligger i deras respektive tillvägagångssätt: historia koncentrerar sig på att beskriva och analysera tidigare händelser, medan filosofi försöker bedöma, tolka och fastställa normer baserade på abstrakta begrepp. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 08d75e2709a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuna tofauti gani kati ya historia na falsafa? -answer: Majibu mengine yote -wrong_answers: - - Historia inaeleza yaliyopita huku falsafa inayahukumu - - Historia ni ya ukweli wakati falsafa ni ya kawaida - - Historia inazingatia matukio wakati falsafa inazingatia dhana -explanation: | - Tofauti kati ya historia na falsafa iko katika mikabala yao husika: historia hujikita katika kueleza na kuchanganua matukio ya zamani, huku falsafa inatafuta kuhukumu, kufasiri na kuanzisha kanuni zinazozingatia dhana dhahania. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 243e8743d01..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ความแตกต่างระหว่างประวัติศาสตร์และปรัชญาคืออะไร? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด -wrong_answers: - - ประวัติศาสตร์บรรยายถึงอดีต ในขณะที่ปรัชญาตัดสินมัน - - ประวัติศาสตร์เป็นข้อเท็จจริง ในขณะที่ปรัชญาเป็นเชิงบรรทัดฐาน - - ประวัติศาสตร์มุ่งเน้นที่เหตุการณ์ ในขณะที่ปรัชญามุ่งเน้นที่แนวคิด -explanation: | - ความแตกต่างระหว่างประวัติศาสตร์และปรัชญาอยู่ที่แนวทางของแต่ละด้าน: ประวัติศาสตร์มุ่งเน้นไปที่การบรรยายและวิเคราะห์เหตุการณ์ในอดีต ในขณะที่ปรัชญามุ่งหวังที่จะตัดสินใจ ตีความ และสร้างบรรทัดฐานตามแนวคิดเชิงนามธรรม -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3e5d97dd4b0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Tarih ve felsefe arasındaki fark nedir? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar -wrong_answers: - - Tarih geçmişi anlatırken felsefe onu yargılar - - Tarih olgusaldır, felsefe ise normatiftir - - Tarih olaylara odaklanırken, felsefe kavramlara odaklanır -explanation: | - Tarih ve felsefe arasındaki fark, yaklaşımlarında yatmaktadır: tarih geçmiş olayları tanımlamaya ve analiz etmeye odaklanırken, felsefe soyut kavramlara dayalı olarak yargılama, yorumlama ve normlar oluşturma arayışındadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6c23ec46e38..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Sự khác biệt giữa lịch sử và triết học là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác -wrong_answers: - - Lịch sử mô tả quá khứ trong khi triết học đánh giá nó - - Lịch sử dựa trên sự kiện thực tế trong khi triết học dựa trên quy chuẩn - - Lịch sử tập trung vào sự kiện trong khi triết học tập trung vào khái niệm -explanation: | - Sự khác biệt giữa lịch sử và triết học nằm ở cách tiếp cận của chúng: lịch sử tập trung vào việc mô tả và phân tích các sự kiện quá khứ, trong khi triết học tìm cách đánh giá, giải thích và thiết lập các quy chuẩn dựa trên các khái niệm trừu tượng. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b2ef2acc5c0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 历史与哲学之间的区别是什么？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 历史描述过去，而哲学则对其进行评判 - - 历史是基于事实的，而哲学是规范性的 - - 历史关注事件，而哲学关注概念 -explanation: | - 历史与哲学之间的区别在于它们各自的方法：历史专注于描述和分析过去的事件，而哲学则寻求基于抽象概念来评判、解释和建立规范。 -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 001aba6946b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/001/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 歷史與哲學之間有何差異？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 歷史描述過去，而哲學判斷過去 - - 歷史是事實，而哲學是規範 - - 歷史著重於事件，而哲學則著重於概念 -explanation: | - 歷史與哲學的差異在於各自的方法：歷史專注於描述與分析過去的事件，而哲學則尋求判斷、解釋，並根據抽象概念建立規範。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 46612713b02..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какво включва свободата? -answer: Всички останали отговори -wrong_answers: - - Властта да правиш каквото си искаш с това, което ти принадлежи - - Липсата на външни ограничения - - Способност за самостоятелно мислене и действие -explanation: | - Свободата включва няколко измерения, включително правото да се действа по собствена воля, липсата на външни ограничения и способността за автономност в мисленето и действието, като всички те допринасят за цялостното определение на това понятие. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 20b2b156150..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Co obnáší svoboda? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi -wrong_answers: - - Moc dělat, co člověk chce se svým majetkem - - Absence vnějších omezení - - Schopnost myslet a jednat nezávisle -explanation: | - Svoboda zahrnuje několik dimenzí, včetně moci jednat podle vlastní vůle, absence vnějších omezení a kapacity pro autonomii v myšlení a jednání, které všechny přispívají k komplexní definici tohoto pojmu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 859db7e87b2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was beinhaltet Freiheit? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten -wrong_answers: - - Die Macht, zu tun, was man mit dem, was einem gehört, will - - Die Abwesenheit von äußeren Zwängen - - Die Fähigkeit, unabhängig zu denken und zu handeln -explanation: | - Freiheit umfasst mehrere Dimensionen, einschließlich der Macht, gemäß dem eigenen Willen zu handeln, der Abwesenheit von äußeren Zwängen und der Kapazität für Autonomie im Denken und Handeln, die alle zu einer umfassenden Definition dieses Konzepts beitragen. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/en.yml index cb8dbaf4ddd..6387640bdd6 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What does freedom entail? -answer: All the other answers +answer: The power to do what one wants with what belongs to them wrong_answers: - - The power to do what one wants with what belongs to them - The absence of external constraints + - The right to participate in collective political decisions - The ability to think and act independently explanation: | - Freedom encompasses several dimensions, including the power to act according to one's will, the absence of external constraints, and the capacity for autonomy in thought and action, all of which contribute to a comprehensive definition of this concept. -reviewed: ture + Freedom is defined in this course as the ability to make choices over one's affairs and to dispose of oneself and one's property under the condition of responsibility. It is fundamentally individual and tied to property rights. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4b809719790..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Qué implica la libertad? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas -wrong_answers: - - El poder de hacer lo que uno quiere con lo que le pertenece - - La ausencia de restricciones externas - - La capacidad de pensar y actuar de manera independiente -explanation: | - La libertad abarca varias dimensiones, incluyendo el poder de actuar según la voluntad de uno, la ausencia de restricciones externas y la capacidad de autonomía en el pensamiento y la acción, todo lo cual contribuye a una definición integral de este concepto. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2f16d32a2f0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mida tähendab vabadus? -answer: Kõik teised vastused -wrong_answers: - - Võim teha, mida iganes soovitakse oma valdustega - - Väliste piirangute puudumine - - Võime mõelda ja tegutseda iseseisvalt -explanation: | - Vabadus hõlmab mitmeid mõõtmeid, sealhulgas võimet tegutseda vastavalt oma tahtele, väliste piirangute puudumist ja autonoomia võimet mõtlemises ja tegutsemises, mis kõik aitavad kaasa selle mõiste põhjalikule definitsioonile. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 20cb2678607..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: آزادی شامل چه چیزهایی می‌شود؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر -wrong_answers: - - قدرت انجام آنچه که فرد می‌خواهد با آنچه که به او تعلق دارد - - عدم وجود محدودیت‌های خارجی - - توانایی تفکر و عمل به‌صورت مستقل -explanation: | - آزادی شامل ابعاد مختلفی است، از جمله قدرت عمل بر اساس اراده شخصی، نبود محدودیت‌های خارجی، و ظرفیت خودمختاری در فکر و عمل، که همگی به تعریف جامع این مفهوم کمک می‌کنند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 38733f89126..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mitä vapaus pitää sisällään? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset -wrong_answers: - - Valta tehdä mitä haluaa omistamiensa asioiden kanssa - - Ulkoisten rajoitteiden puuttuminen - - Kyky ajatella ja toimia itsenäisesti -explanation: | - Vapaus kattaa useita ulottuvuuksia, mukaan lukien valta toimia oman tahtonsa mukaan, ulkoisten rajoitteiden puuttuminen ja autonomian kapasiteetti ajattelussa ja toiminnassa, jotka kaikki edistävät tämän käsitteen kattavaa määritelmää. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fr.yml index 5e861c3a933..a79e3da7707 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: En quoi consiste la liberté ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: Le pouvoir de faire ce que l'on veut avec ce qui nous appartient. wrong_answers: - - Le pouvoir de faire ce que l'on veut avec ce qui nous appartient. - L'absence de contraintes extérieures. + - Le droit de participer aux décisions politiques collectives. - La capacité de penser et d'agir par soi-même. explanation: | - La liberté englobe plusieurs dimensions, y compris le pouvoir d'agir selon sa volonté, l'absence de contraintes extérieures, et la capacité d'autonomie dans la pensée et l'action, toutes contribuant à une définition complète de ce concept. -reviewed: true + La liberté est définie dans ce cours comme la capacité de faire des choix concernant ses propres affaires et de disposer de soi-même et de ses biens sous la condition de la responsabilité. Elle est fondamentalement individuelle et liée aux droits de propriété. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e62a37e7470..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: आज़ादी का मतलब क्या है? -answer: बाकी सारे जवाब -wrong_answers: - - अपनी चीज़ों के साथ जो चाहे करने की ताक़त - - बाहरी बंधनों का न होना - - स्वतंत्र रूप से सोचने और कार्य करने की क्षमता -explanation: | - "स्वतंत्रता" के कई पहलू हैं, जैसे कि अपनी मर्जी से काम करने की ताकत, बाहरी रोक-टोक का न होना, और सोचने-समझने व काम करने में खुदमुख्तारी... ये सब मिलकर इस अहम अवधारणा को पूरी तरह समझाते हैं। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26a8303644f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa yang dimaksud dengan kebebasan? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya -wrong_answers: - - Kekuatan untuk melakukan apa yang diinginkan dengan apa yang dimiliki oleh mereka - - Ketidakhadiran kendala eksternal - - Kemampuan untuk berpikir dan bertindak secara independen -explanation: | - Kebebasan mencakup beberapa dimensi, termasuk kekuatan untuk bertindak sesuai dengan kehendak seseorang, ketidakhadiran kendala eksternal, dan kapasitas untuk otonomi dalam pemikiran dan tindakan, semua berkontribusi pada definisi komprehensif dari konsep ini. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e7c07b9ff09..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Cosa comporta la libertà? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte -wrong_answers: - - Il potere di fare ciò che si vuole con ciò che si possiede - - L'assenza di vincoli esterni - - La capacità di pensare e agire in modo indipendente -explanation: | - La libertà comprende diverse dimensioni, inclusi il potere di agire secondo la propria volontà, l'assenza di vincoli esterni e la capacità di autonomia nel pensiero e nell'azione, contribuendo tutti a una definizione comprensiva di questo concetto. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 946318da84d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由には何が含まれますか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答 -wrong_answers: - - 自分のものに対して好きなことをする力 - - 外部からの制約がないこと - - 独立して考え、行動する能力 -explanation: | - 自由は、自分の意志に従って行動する力、外部からの制約がないこと、そして思考と行動における自律性の能力を含む、いくつかの次元を包含しています。これらすべてが、この概念の包括的な定義に寄与しています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 50f61d63007..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 자유는 무엇을 수반하나요? -answer: 다른 모든 답변 -wrong_answers: - - 자신의 소유물로 원하는 것을 할 수 있는 힘 - - 외부 제약이 없음 - - 독립적으로 사고하고 행동하는 능력 -explanation: | - 자유는 자신의 의지에 따라 행동할 수 있는 힘, 외부의 제약이 없는 것, 사고와 행동의 자율성 등 여러 차원을 포괄하며, 이 모든 것이 이 개념을 포괄적으로 정의하는 데 기여합니다. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c002c95a9f6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva innebærer frihet? -answer: Alle de andre svarene -wrong_answers: - - Makten til å gjøre hva man vil med det som tilhører dem - - Fraværet av eksterne begrensninger - - Evnen til å tenke og handle uavhengig -explanation: | - Frihet omfatter flere dimensjoner, inkludert makten til å handle i henhold til ens vilje, fraværet av eksterne begrensninger, og kapasiteten for autonomi i tanke og handling, alt bidrar til en omfattende definisjon av dette konseptet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ed28ab4dc44..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat houdt vrijheid in? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden -wrong_answers: - - De macht om te doen wat iemand wil met wat van hem is - - De afwezigheid van externe beperkingen - - Zelfstandig kunnen denken en handelen -explanation: | - Vrijheid omvat verschillende dimensies, waaronder het vermogen om naar eigen wil te handelen, de afwezigheid van externe beperkingen en het vermogen tot autonomie in denken en handelen, die allemaal bijdragen aan een allesomvattende definitie van dit concept. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1ac2ab70af..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Co oznacza wolność? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi -wrong_answers: - - Moc robienia tego, co się chce z tym, co do nich należy - - Brak zewnętrznych ograniczeń - - Zdolność do samodzielnego myślenia i działania -explanation: | - Wolność obejmuje kilka wymiarów, w tym moc działania zgodnie z własną wolą, brak zewnętrznych ograniczeń oraz zdolność do autonomii w myśleniu i działaniu, co przyczynia się do kompleksowej definicji tego pojęcia. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 32e80e118f6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: O que a liberdade implica? -answer: Todas as outras respostas -wrong_answers: - - O poder de fazer o que se quer com o que lhe pertence - - A ausência de restrições externas - - A capacidade de pensar e agir de forma independente -explanation: | - A liberdade engloba várias dimensões, incluindo o poder de agir de acordo com a vontade própria, a ausência de restrições externas e a capacidade de autonomia no pensamento e na ação, contribuindo todos para uma definição abrangente deste conceito. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0ee23c0d494..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: None umwidegemvyo usaba iki? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose -wrong_answers: - - Ububasha bwo gukora ivyo umuntu ashaka n'ivyiwe . - - Kubura inzitizi zo hanze - - Ubushobozi bwo kwiyumvira no gukora wigenga . -explanation: | - Umwidegemvyo ugizwe n’ibintu vyinshi, harimwo ububasha bwo gukora ivyo umuntu ashaka, ukutagira inzitizi zivuye hanze, n’ubushobozi bwo kwigenga mu vyiyumviro no mu bikorwa, ivyo vyose bikaba bifasha mu gusobanura neza ico ciyumviro. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 30a2a145b30..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Что подразумевает под собой свобода? -answer: Все остальные ответы -wrong_answers: - - Возможность делать то, что хочется, с тем, что принадлежит вам - - Отсутствие внешних ограничений - - Способность мыслить и действовать независимо -explanation: | - Свобода охватывает несколько измерений, включая способность действовать в соответствии с собственной волей, отсутствие внешних ограничений и возможность автономии в мышлении и действиях, все это вместе формирует комплексное определение данного понятия. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 19f5add4674..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Šta sloboda podrazumeva? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori -wrong_answers: - - Moć da se radi šta se želi sa onim što im pripada - - Odsustvo spoljašnjih ograničenja - - Sposobnost da mislite i delujete samostalno -explanation: | - Sloboda obuhvata nekoliko dimenzija, uključujući moć da se deluje u skladu sa svojom voljom, odsustvo spoljašnjih ograničenja i sposobnost za autonomiju u mišljenju i delovanju, što sve doprinosi sveobuhvatnoj definiciji ovog pojma. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 93d6ac2fa88..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad innebär frihet? -answer: Alla de andra svaren -wrong_answers: - - Makten att göra vad man vill med det som tillhör en själv - - Avsaknad av externa begränsningar - - Förmåga att tänka och agera självständigt -explanation: | - Frihet omfattar flera dimensioner, bland annat möjligheten att agera enligt sin vilja, frånvaron av yttre begränsningar och förmågan till självständighet i tanke och handling, vilka alla bidrar till en heltäckande definition av detta begrepp. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 891dbe443aa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Uhuru unahusisha nini? -answer: Majibu mengine yote -wrong_answers: - - Uwezo wa kufanya kile mtu anachotaka kwa kile kilicho chake - - Kutokuwepo kwa vikwazo vya nje - - Uwezo wa kufikiria na kutenda kwa kujitegemea -explanation: | - Uhuru unajumuisha vipimo kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na uwezo wa kutenda kulingana na mapenzi ya mtu, kutokuwepo kwa vikwazo vya nje, na uwezo wa kujitegemea katika mawazo na matendo, yote yanachangia ufafanuzi wa kina wa dhana hii. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 23e12958669..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: เสรีภาพประกอบด้วยอะไรบ้าง? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด -wrong_answers: - - อำนาจในการทำสิ่งที่ต้องการกับสิ่งที่เป็นของตน - - การไม่มีข้อจำกัดภายนอก - - ความสามารถในการคิดและกระทำอย่างอิสระ -explanation: | - เสรีภาพครอบคลุมหลายมิติ รวมถึงพลังในการกระทำตามความประสงค์ของตน การไม่มีข้อจำกัดภายนอก และความสามารถในการมีอิสระทางความคิดและการกระทำ ซึ่งทั้งหมดนี้มีส่วนช่วยในการกำหนดความหมายที่ครอบคลุมของแนวคิดนี้ -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1da21ee4c5c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Özgürlük neyi gerektirir? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar -wrong_answers: - - Kişinin kendisine ait olanla istediğini yapabilme gücü - - Dış kısıtlamaların olmaması - - Bağımsız düşünme ve hareket etme yeteneği -explanation: | - Özgürlük, kişinin iradesine göre hareket etme gücü, dış kısıtlamaların olmaması ve düşünce ve eylemde özerklik kapasitesi gibi çeşitli boyutları kapsar ve bunların hepsi bu kavramın kapsamlı bir tanımına katkıda bulunur. -reviewed: ture \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d77a9bce56c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Tự do bao hàm những gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác -wrong_answers: - - Quyền làm những gì mình muốn với những gì thuộc về mình - - Sự vắng mặt của các ràng buộc bên ngoài - - Khả năng suy nghĩ và hành động một cách độc lập -explanation: | - Tự do bao gồm nhiều chiều kích, bao gồm quyền hành động theo ý muốn của bản thân, sự vắng mặt của các ràng buộc bên ngoài, và khả năng tự chủ trong suy nghĩ và hành động, tất cả đều góp phần vào một định nghĩa toàn diện về khái niệm này. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ed0ae2bd9d6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由包含什么？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 用属于自己的东西做自己想做的事的能力 - - 外部约束的缺乏 - - 独立思考和行动的能力 -explanation: - 自由包含几个维度，包括根据自己的意愿行动的能力、外部约束的缺乏以及在思考和行动中的自主能力，所有这些都贡献于这一概念的全面定义。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ccbfeae94e5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/002/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由包含什麼？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 對屬於自己的東西為所欲為的權力 - - 沒有外部限制 - - 獨立思考和行動的能力 -explanation: | - 自由包含數個層面，包括按照個人意志行事的力量、沒有外在約束，以及思想和行動自主的能力，這些都有助於這個概念的全面定義。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0146e573f91..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е основната разлика между философията на свободата и философията на властта? -answer: Всички останали отговори -wrong_answers: - - Философията на свободата е в полза на индивида, а философията на властта - в полза на обществото - - Философията на свободата цени частната собственост, а философията на властта - колективния интерес - - Философията на свободата се основава на естественото право, а философията на властта - на позитивното право -explanation: | - Фундаменталната разлика се състои в това, че философията на свободата акцентира върху индивида и неговите права, докато философията на властта се фокусира върху социалните и политическите структури, често за сметка на индивидуалната автономия и частната собственост. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a7ecabf234d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je základní rozdíl mezi filozofií svobody a filozofií moci? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi -wrong_answers: - - Filozofie svobody upřednostňuje jednotlivce, zatímco filozofie moci upřednostňuje společnost - - Filozofie svobody hodnotí soukromé vlastnictví, zatímco filozofie moci hodnotí kolektivní zájem - - Filozofie svobody je založena na přirozeném právu, zatímco filozofie moci je založena na pozitivním právu -explanation: | - Základní rozdíl spočívá v tom, že filozofie svobody zdůrazňuje jednotlivce a jejich práva, zatímco filozofie moci se zaměřuje na sociální a politické struktury, často na úkor autonomie jednotlivce a soukromého vlastnictví. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6c560ac1da7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist der grundlegende Unterschied zwischen der Philosophie der Freiheit und der Philosophie der Macht? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten -wrong_answers: - - Die Philosophie der Freiheit bevorzugt das Individuum, während die Philosophie der Macht die Gesellschaft bevorzugt - - Die Philosophie der Freiheit wertet Privateigentum, während die Philosophie der Macht das kollektive Interesse wertet - - Die Philosophie der Freiheit basiert auf dem Naturrecht, während die Philosophie der Macht auf dem positiven Recht basiert -explanation: | - Der grundlegende Unterschied liegt darin, dass die Philosophie der Freiheit das Individuum und dessen Rechte betont, während die Philosophie der Macht auf soziale und politische Strukturen fokussiert, oft auf Kosten der individuellen Autonomie und des Privateigentums. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/en.yml index 8fe1f49b686..e362029cf28 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the fundamental difference between the philosophy of freedom and the philosophy of power? -answer: All the other answers +answer: The philosophy of freedom values private property, while the philosophy of power values the collective interest wrong_answers: - The philosophy of freedom favors the individual, while the philosophy of power favors society - - The philosophy of freedom values private property, while the philosophy of power values the collective interest + - The philosophy of freedom emerged during the Enlightenment, while the philosophy of power dates back to Antiquity - The philosophy of freedom is based on natural law, while the philosophy of power is based on positive law explanation: | - The fundamental difference lies in the fact that the philosophy of freedom emphasizes the individual and their rights, whereas the philosophy of power focuses on social and political structures, often at the expense of individual autonomy and private property. + The fundamental distinction is that the philosophy of freedom is based on private property and individual rights, while the philosophy of power justifies collective authority to organize society, often at the expense of individual property and autonomy. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0cbdf18ba22..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la diferencia fundamental entre la filosofía de la libertad y la filosofía del poder? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas -wrong_answers: - - La filosofía de la libertad favorece al individuo mientras que la filosofía del poder favorece a la sociedad - - La filosofía de la libertad valora la propiedad privada mientras que la filosofía del poder valora el interés colectivo - - La filosofía de la libertad se basa en la ley natural mientras que la filosofía del poder se basa en la ley positiva -explanation: | - La diferencia fundamental radica en el hecho de que la filosofía de la libertad enfatiza al individuo y sus derechos, mientras que la filosofía del poder se centra en las estructuras sociales y políticas, a menudo a expensas de la autonomía individual y la propiedad privada. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fc0addef6f7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on põhimõtteline erinevus vabaduse filosoofia ja võimu filosoofia vahel? -answer: Kõik teised vastused -wrong_answers: - - Vabaduse filosoofia eelistab indiviidi, samas kui võimu filosoofia eelistab ühiskonda - - Vabaduse filosoofia väärtustab eraomandit, samas kui võimu filosoofia väärtustab kollektiivset huvi - - Vabaduse filosoofia põhineb loomulikul õigusel, samas kui võimu filosoofia põhineb positiivsel õigusel -explanation: | - Põhimõtteline erinevus seisneb selles, et vabaduse filosoofia rõhutab indiviidi ja nende õigusi, samas kui võimu filosoofia keskendub sotsiaalsetele ja poliitilistele struktuuridele, sageli indiviidi autonoomia ja eraomandi arvelt. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 019dda0ef73..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: تفاوت اساسی بین فلسفه آزادی و فلسفه قدرت چیست؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر -wrong_answers: - - فلسفه آزادی به فرد توجه دارد در حالی که فلسفه قدرت به جامعه توجه دارد - - فلسفه آزادی به مالکیت خصوصی ارزش می‌نهد در حالی که فلسفه قدرت به منافع جمعی ارزش می‌دهد - - فلسفه آزادی بر اساس قانون طبیعی است در حالی که فلسفه قدرت بر اساس قانون مثبت است -explanation: | - تفاوت اساسی در این واقعیت نهفته است که فلسفه آزادی بر فرد و حقوق او تأکید دارد، در حالی که فلسفه قدرت بر ساختارهای اجتماعی و سیاسی تمرکز می‌کند، که اغلب به قیمت خودمختاری فردی و مالکیت خصوصی تمام می‌شود. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 627698b6f6a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on perustavanlaatuinen ero vapauden filosofian ja vallan filosofian välillä? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset -wrong_answers: - - Vapauden filosofia suosii yksilöä, kun taas vallan filosofia suosii yhteiskuntaa - - Vapauden filosofia arvostaa yksityisomaisuutta, kun taas vallan filosofia arvostaa kollektiivista etua - - Vapauden filosofia perustuu luonnonoikeuteen, kun taas vallan filosofia perustuu positiiviseen oikeuteen -explanation: | - Perustavanlaatuinen ero on siinä, että vapauden filosofia korostaa yksilöä ja heidän oikeuksiaan, kun taas vallan filosofia keskittyy sosiaalisiin ja poliittisiin rakenteisiin, usein yksilön autonomian ja yksityisomaisuuden kustannuksella. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fr.yml index a318e8c9802..ca380be0a46 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la différence fondamentale entre la philosophie de la liberté et la philosophie du pouvoir ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: La philosophie de la liberté valorise la propriété privée, tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir valorise l'intérêt collectif. wrong_answers: - La philosophie de la liberté privilégie l'individu tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir privilégie la société. - - La philosophie de la liberté valorise la propriété privée tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir valorise l'intérêt collectif. + - La philosophie de la liberté a émergé durant les Lumières, tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir remonte à l'Antiquité. - La philosophie de la liberté s'appuie sur le droit naturel tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir s'appuie sur la loi positive. explanation: | - La différence fondamentale réside dans le fait que la philosophie de la liberté met l'accent sur l'individu et ses droits, tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir se concentre sur les structures sociales et politiques, souvent au détriment de l'autonomie individuelle et de la propriété privée. -reviewed: true + La distinction fondamentale est que la philosophie de la liberté repose sur la propriété privée et les droits individuels, tandis que la philosophie du pouvoir justifie l'autorité collective pour organiser la société, souvent au détriment de la propriété individuelle et de l'autonomie. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f6224c51af7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: स्वतंत्रता के दर्शन और शक्ति के दर्शन के बीच मौलिक अंतर क्या है? -answer: अन्य सभी उत्तर -wrong_answers: - - स्वतंत्रता का दर्शन व्यक्ति के पक्ष में है जबकि शक्ति का दर्शन समाज के पक्ष में है - - स्वतंत्रता का दर्शन निजी संपत्ति को महत्व देता है जबकि शक्ति का दर्शन सामूहिक हित को महत्व देता है - - स्वतंत्रता का दर्शन प्राकृतिक कानून पर आधारित है जबकि शक्ति का दर्शन सकारात्मक कानून पर आधारित है -explanation: | - मौलिक अंतर इस तथ्य में निहित है कि स्वतंत्रता का दर्शन व्यक्ति और उसके अधिकारों पर जोर देता है, जबकि सत्ता का दर्शन सामाजिक और राजनीतिक संरचनाओं पर ध्यान केंद्रित करता है, जो अक्सर व्यक्तिगत स्वायत्तता और निजी संपत्ति की कीमत पर होता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4c2eedeee45..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa perbedaan mendasar antara filsafat kebebasan dan filsafat kekuasaan? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya -wrong_answers: - - Filsafat kebebasan lebih mengutamakan individu sementara filsafat kekuasaan lebih mengutamakan masyarakat - - Filsafat kebebasan menghargai hak milik pribadi sementara filsafat kekuasaan menghargai kepentingan kolektif - - Filsafat kebebasan didasarkan pada hukum alam sementara filsafat kekuasaan didasarkan pada hukum positif -explanation: | - Perbedaan mendasar terletak pada fakta bahwa filsafat kebebasan menekankan pada individu dan hak-hak mereka, sedangkan filsafat kekuasaan fokus pada struktur sosial dan politik, seringkali dengan mengorbankan otonomi individu dan hak milik pribadi. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bd8de3bf329..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la differenza fondamentale tra la filosofia della libertà e la filosofia del potere? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte -wrong_answers: - - La filosofia della libertà favorisce l'individuo mentre la filosofia del potere favorisce la società - - La filosofia della libertà valorizza la proprietà privata mentre la filosofia del potere valorizza l'interesse collettivo - - La filosofia della libertà si basa sul diritto naturale mentre la filosofia del potere si basa sul diritto positivo -explanation: | - La differenza fondamentale risiede nel fatto che la filosofia della libertà enfatizza l'individuo e i suoi diritti, mentre la filosofia del potere si concentra sulle strutture sociali e politiche, spesso a scapito dell'autonomia individuale e della proprietà privata. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 90e8c2c04f2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由の哲学と権力の哲学の根本的な違いは何ですか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答 -wrong_answers: - - 自由の哲学は個人を重視する一方で、権力の哲学は社会を重視します - - 自由の哲学は私有財産を価値視する一方で、権力の哲学は集団の利益を価値視します - - 自由の哲学は自然法に基づいている一方で、権力の哲学は実定法に基づいています -explanation: | - 根本的な違いは、自由の哲学が個人とその権利を強調するのに対し、権力の哲学が社会や政治構造に焦点を当て、しばしば個人の自律性や私有財産を犠牲にすることにある。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1b89514aa8c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 자유의 철학과 권력의 철학의 근본적인 차이점은 무엇인가요? -answer: 다른 모든 답변 -wrong_answers: - - 자유의 철학은 개인에게 유리한 반면, 권력의 철학은 사회에 유리합니다 - - 자유의 철학은 사유 재산을 중시하는 반면 권력의 철학은 공동의 이익을 중시합니다 - - 자유의 철학은 자연법에 기반한 반면, 권력의 철학은 포지티브 법칙에 기반합니다 -explanation: | - 근본적인 차이점은 자유의 철학은 개인과 개인의 권리를 강조하는 반면, 권력의 철학은 개인의 자율성과 사유 재산을 희생하면서까지 사회와 정치 구조에 초점을 맞춘다는 사실에 있습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 13a43643893..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er den grunnleggende forskjellen mellom frihetsfilosofien og maktfilosofien? -answer: Alle de andre svarene -wrong_answers: - - Frihetsfilosofien favoriserer individet mens maktfilosofien favoriserer samfunnet - - Frihetsfilosofien verdsetter privat eiendom mens maktfilosofien verdsetter kollektivets interesser - - Frihetsfilosofien er basert på naturrett mens maktfilosofien er basert på positiv rett -explanation: | - Den grunnleggende forskjellen ligger i det faktum at frihetsfilosofien vektlegger individet og deres rettigheter, mens maktfilosofien fokuserer på sosiale og politiske strukturer, ofte på bekostning av individuell autonomi og privat eiendom. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6a5580f54c0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is het fundamentele verschil tussen de filosofie van vrijheid en de filosofie van macht? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden -wrong_answers: - - De filosofie van vrijheid begunstigt het individu, terwijl de filosofie van macht de samenleving begunstigt - - De vrijheidsfilosofie hecht waarde aan privébezit, terwijl de machtsfilosofie waarde hecht aan het collectieve belang - - De filosofie van vrijheid is gebaseerd op natuurrecht, terwijl de filosofie van macht is gebaseerd op positief recht -explanation: | - Het fundamentele verschil ligt in het feit dat de vrijheidsfilosofie de nadruk legt op het individu en zijn rechten, terwijl de machtsfilosofie zich richt op sociale en politieke structuren, vaak ten koste van individuele autonomie en privébezit. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f4b0c5bef1d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaka jest zasadnicza różnica między filozofią wolności a filozofią władzy? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi -wrong_answers: - - Filozofia wolności faworyzuje jednostkę, podczas gdy filozofia władzy faworyzuje społeczeństwo - - Filozofia wolności ceni własność prywatną, podczas gdy filozofia władzy ceni interes zbiorowy - - Filozofia wolności opiera się na prawie naturalnym, podczas gdy filozofia władzy opiera się na prawie pozytywnym -explanation: | - Podstawowa różnica polega na tym, że filozofia wolności kładzie nacisk na jednostkę i jej prawa, podczas gdy filozofia władzy koncentruje się na strukturach społecznych i politycznych, często kosztem autonomii jednostki i własności prywatnej. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 369e133cb8d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a diferença fundamental entre a filosofia da liberdade e a filosofia do poder? -answer: Todas as outras respostas -wrong_answers: - - A filosofia da liberdade favorece o indivíduo enquanto a filosofia do poder favorece a sociedade - - A filosofia da liberdade valoriza a propriedade privada enquanto a filosofia do poder valoriza o interesse coletivo - - A filosofia da liberdade é baseada na lei natural enquanto a filosofia do poder é baseada na lei positiva -explanation: | - A diferença fundamental reside no fato de que a filosofia da liberdade enfatiza o indivíduo e seus direitos, enquanto a filosofia do poder foca nas estruturas sociais e políticas, muitas vezes em detrimento da autonomia individual e da propriedade privada. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ac77095e002..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni itandukaniro irihe ry’ishimikiro riri hagati ya filozofiya y’umwidegemvyo n’iy’ububasha? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose -wrong_answers: - - Filozofiya y'umwidegemvyo ikunda umuntu ku giti ciwe, mu gihe filozofiya y'ububasha ikunda ikibano - - Filozofiya y’umwidegemvyo iha agaciro umutungo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe, mu gihe filozofiya y’ububasha iha agaciro inyungu rusangi . - - Filozofiya y'umwidegemvyo ishingiye ku mategeko kamere, mu gihe filozofiya y'ububasha ishingiye ku mategeko meza -explanation: | - Itandukaniro ry’ishimikiro riri mu kuba filozofiya y’umwidegemvyo ishimika ku muntu ku giti ciwe n’uburenganzira bwiwe, mu gihe filozofiya y’ubutegetsi yibanda ku mibumbe y’imibano n’iya politike, kenshi bikaba bituma umuntu yigenga n’itunga ryiwe bwite. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 59f2b944c73..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: В чем заключается фундаментальное отличие между философией свободы и философией власти? -answer: Все другие ответы -wrong_answers: - - Философия свободы отдает предпочтение индивиду, в то время как философия власти отдает предпочтение обществу - - Философия свободы ценит частную собственность, в то время как философия власти ценит коллективные интересы - - Философия свободы основана на естественном праве, в то время как философия власти основана на позитивном праве -explanation: | - Фундаментальное отличие заключается в том, что философия свободы подчеркивает значение индивида и его прав, в то время как философия власти сосредотачивается на социальных и политических структурах, часто в ущерб автономии индивида и частной собственности. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b794cda0ba5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je osnovna razlika između filozofije slobode i filozofije moći? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori -wrong_answers: - - Filozofija slobode favorizuje pojedinca dok filozofija moći favorizuje društvo - - Filozofija slobode ceni privatnu svojinu dok filozofija moći ceni kolektivni interes - - Filozofija slobode zasniva se na prirodnom pravu dok se filozofija moći zasniva na pozitivnom pravu -explanation: | - Fundamentalna razlika leži u činjenici da filozofija slobode naglašava pojedinca i njegova prava, dok se filozofija moći fokusira na društvene i političke strukture, često na račun individualne autonomije i privatne svojine. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 325c3ad7322..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är den grundläggande skillnaden mellan frihetsfilosofin och maktfilosofin? -answer: Alla de andra svaren -wrong_answers: - - Frihetsfilosofin gynnar individen, medan maktfilosofin gynnar samhället - - Frihetsfilosofin värdesätter privat egendom, medan maktfilosofin värdesätter det kollektiva intresset - - Frihetsfilosofin bygger på naturrätten, medan maktfilosofin bygger på positiv rätt -explanation: | - Den grundläggande skillnaden ligger i att frihetsfilosofin betonar individen och dennes rättigheter, medan maktfilosofin fokuserar på sociala och politiska strukturer, ofta på bekostnad av individens autonomi och privat egendom. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 25b71ac2869..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuna tofauti gani ya kimsingi kati ya falsafa ya uhuru na falsafa ya nguvu? -answer: Majibu mengine yote -wrong_answers: - - Falsafa ya uhuru inampendelea mtu binafsi huku falsafa ya madaraka ikipendelea jamii - - Falsafa ya uhuru inathamini mali ya kibinafsi wakati falsafa ya mamlaka inathamini maslahi ya pamoja - - Falsafa ya uhuru inategemea sheria ya asili wakati falsafa ya nguvu inategemea sheria chanya -explanation: | - Tofauti ya kimsingi iko katika ukweli kwamba falsafa ya uhuru inasisitiza mtu binafsi na haki zake, ambapo falsafa ya mamlaka inazingatia miundo ya kijamii na kisiasa, mara nyingi kwa gharama ya uhuru wa mtu binafsi na mali ya kibinafsi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 142bc599ce4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: อะไรคือความแตกต่างพื้นฐานระหว่างปรัชญาแห่งเสรีภาพและปรัชญาแห่งอำนาจ? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด -wrong_answers: - - ปรัชญาแห่งเสรีภาพสนับสนุนบุคคล ในขณะที่ปรัชญาแห่งอำนาจสนับสนุนสังคม - - ปรัชญาแห่งเสรีภาพให้คุณค่ากับทรัพย์สินส่วนบุคคล ในขณะที่ปรัชญาแห่งอำนาจให้คุณค่ากับผลประโยชน์ส่วนรวม - - ปรัชญาแห่งเสรีภาพมีพื้นฐานมาจากกฎธรรมชาติ ในขณะที่ปรัชญาแห่งอำนาจมีพื้นฐานมาจากกฎหมายเชิงบวก -explanation: | - ความแตกต่างพื้นฐานอยู่ที่ปรัชญาแห่งเสรีภาพเน้นที่บุคคลและสิทธิของพวกเขา ในขณะที่ปรัชญาแห่งอำนาจมุ่งเน้นไปที่โครงสร้างทางสังคมและการเมือง ซึ่งมักจะเป็นค่าใช้จ่ายของอิสรภาพส่วนบุคคลและทรัพย์สินส่วนตัว -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 561b7adea0f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Özgürlük felsefesi ile iktidar felsefesi arasındaki temel fark nedir? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar -wrong_answers: - - Özgürlük felsefesi bireyi, güç felsefesi ise toplumu destekler - - Özgürlük felsefesi özel mülkiyete değer verirken, güç felsefesi kolektif çıkara değer verir - - Özgürlük felsefesi doğal hukuka, iktidar felsefesi ise pozitif hukuka dayanır -explanation: | - Aradaki temel fark, özgürlük felsefesinin bireyi ve haklarını vurgulaması, iktidar felsefesinin ise genellikle bireysel özerklik ve özel mülkiyet pahasına sosyal ve siyasi yapılara odaklanmasıdır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7bcc27c1357..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Sự khác biệt cơ bản giữa triết lý tự do và triết lý quyền lực là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác -wrong_answers: - - Triết lý tự do ưu tiên cá nhân trong khi triết lý quyền lực ưu tiên xã hội - - Triết lý tự do coi trọng tài sản cá nhân trong khi triết lý quyền lực coi trọng lợi ích tập thể - - Triết lý tự do dựa trên luật tự nhiên trong khi triết lý quyền lực dựa trên luật tích cực -explanation: | - Sự khác biệt cơ bản nằm ở việc triết lý tự do nhấn mạnh vào cá nhân và quyền của họ, trong khi triết lý quyền lực tập trung vào cấu trúc xã hội và chính trị, thường làm giảm quyền tự chủ và tài sản cá nhân của cá nhân. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bb61b57cce1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由哲学与权力哲学之间的根本区别是什么？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 自由哲学偏好个体，而权力哲学偏好社会 - - 自由哲学重视私有财产，而权力哲学重视集体利益 - - 自由哲学基于自然法则，而权力哲学基于正面法则 -explanation: | - 根本区别在于自由哲学强调个体及其权利，而权力哲学关注社会和政治结构，往往以牺牲个体自主权和私有财产为代价。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8e220ca0d00..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/004/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 自由哲學與權力哲學的根本差異何在？ -answer: 所有其他答案 -wrong_answers: - - 自由哲學有利於個人，而權力哲學則有利於社會。 - - 自由哲學重視私有財產，而權力哲學則重視集體利益。 - - 自由哲學以自然法為基礎，而權力哲學則以實定法為基礎。 -explanation: | - 根本的差異在於，自由哲學強調的是個人及其權利，而權力哲學著重社會和政治結構，往往以犧牲個人自主和私有財產為代價。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 563b39ea75b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какъв е доминиращият възглед за властта в западната философия и историография? -answer: Властта е корумпираща сила, която води до потисничество -wrong_answers: - - Силата е необходима за напредъка и просперитета на човечеството - - Властта е неутрален инструмент, който може да се използва за добро или зло - - Всичко изброено по-горе -explanation: | - В западната философия и историография властта често се разглежда като развращаваща сила, която може да доведе до потисничество и злоупотреба, като се подчертават опасностите от концентрацията на власт и отрицателното въздействие върху свободата на личността. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 816e6e57c98..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je dominantní pohled na moc v západní filozofii a historiografii? -answer: Moc je zkazující síla, která vede k utlačování -wrong_answers: - - Moc je nezbytná pro pokrok a prosperitu lidstva - - Moc je neutrální nástroj, který lze použít pro dobro nebo zlo - - Všechny výše uvedené -explanation: | - V západní filozofii a historiografii je moc často vnímána jako zkazující síla, která pravděpodobně povede k utlačování a zneužívání, což zdůrazňuje nebezpečí koncentrace autority a negativní dopady na individuální svobodu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a5a08a20517..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die vorherrschende Auffassung von Macht in der westlichen Philosophie und Geschichtsschreibung? -answer: Macht ist eine korrupte Kraft, die zu Unterdrückung führt -wrong_answers: - - Macht ist notwendig für den Fortschritt und Wohlstand der Menschheit - - Macht ist ein neutrales Werkzeug, das sowohl für Gutes als auch für Böses verwendet werden kann - - Alle oben genannten -explanation: | - In der westlichen Philosophie und Geschichtsschreibung wird Macht oft als eine korrupte Kraft angesehen, die wahrscheinlich zu Unterdrückung und Missbrauch führt. Dies hebt die Gefahren der Konzentration von Autorität und die negativen Auswirkungen auf die individuelle Freiheit hervor. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/en.yml index ec2c0ce8238..e5d0a23196e 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the dominant view of power in Western philosophy and historiography? -answer: Power is a corrupting force that leads to oppression +answer: Power is necessary for the progress and prosperity of humanity wrong_answers: - - Power is necessary for the progress and prosperity of humanity - - Power is a neutral tool that can be used for good or evil - - All of the above + - Power is a corrupting force that leads to oppression + - Power is a neutral tool that can be used for either good or evil + - Power is an illegitimate usurpation that society should abolish explanation: | - In Western philosophy and historiography, power is often seen as a corrupting force, likely to lead to oppression and abuse, highlighting the dangers of authority concentration and the negative impacts on individual freedom. + According to the course, the cultural prejudice dominating Western philosophy and historiography is that we owe everything to power: freedom, health, education, security, and prosperity, with humanity seen as "inert matter" shaped by the legislator. Bastiat challenges this dominant view, arguing that the reality of power is in fact oppression. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ce9356653d6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la visión dominante del poder en la filosofía y la historiografía occidentales? -answer: El poder es una fuerza corruptora que conduce a la opresión -wrong_answers: - - El poder es necesario para el progreso y la prosperidad de la humanidad - - El poder es una herramienta neutral que puede ser utilizada para el bien o el mal - - Todas las anteriores -explanation: | - En la filosofía y la historiografía occidentales, el poder a menudo se ve como una fuerza corruptora, propensa a llevar a la opresión y el abuso, destacando los peligros de la concentración de autoridad y los impactos negativos en la libertad individual. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index db12c29a574..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on valitsev vaade võimule Lääne filosoofias ja historiograafias? -answer: Võim on korrumpeeriv jõud, mis viib rõhumiseni -wrong_answers: - - Võim on vajalik inimkonna edasiminekuks ja heaoluks - - Võim on neutraalne vahend, mida saab kasutada nii heaks kui ka kurjaks - - Kõik eelnevad -explanation: | - Lääne filosoofias ja historiograafias käsitletakse võimu tihti kui korrumpeerivat jõudu, mis tõenäoliselt viib rõhumise ja kuritarvitamiseni, rõhutades võimu koondumise ohte ja negatiivseid mõjusid individuaalsele vabadusele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 22fe2a6fa9c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: دیدگاه غالب درباره قدرت در فلسفه و تاریخ‌نگاری غربی چیست؟ -answer: قدرت نیرویی فاسدکننده است که به سرکوب منجر می‌شود -wrong_answers: - - قدرت برای پیشرفت و شکوفایی بشریت ضروری است - - قدرت ابزاری خنثی است که می‌تواند برای خیر یا شر استفاده شود - - همه موارد فوق -explanation: | - در فلسفه و تاریخ‌نگاری غربی، قدرت اغلب به عنوان نیرویی فاسدکننده دیده می‌شود که احتمالاً به سرکوب و سوءاستفاده منجر می‌شود و خطرات تمرکز قدرت و تأثیرات منفی بر آزادی فردی را برجسته می‌کند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b95bb61ca71..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on vallan hallitseva näkemys länsimaisessa filosofiassa ja historiografiassa? -answer: Valta on turmeleva voima, joka johtaa sortoon -wrong_answers: - - Valta on välttämätön ihmiskunnan edistyksen ja vaurauden kannalta - - Valta on neutraali väline, jota voidaan käyttää hyvään tai pahaan - - Kaikki yllä mainitut -explanation: | - Länsimaisessa filosofiassa ja historiografiassa valtaa pidetään usein turmelevana voimana, joka todennäköisesti johtaa sortoon ja väärinkäytöksiin, korostaen vallan keskittymisen vaaroja ja kielteisiä vaikutuksia yksilön vapauteen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fr.yml index 5ef7b98d548..17e164c3eb0 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la vision dominante du pouvoir dans la philosophie et l'historiographie occidentales ? -answer: Le pouvoir est une force corruptrice qui mène à l'oppression. +answer: Le pouvoir est nécessaire pour le progrès et la prospérité de l'humanité. wrong_answers: - - Le pouvoir est nécessaire pour le progrès et la prospérité de l'humanité. + - Le pouvoir est une force corruptrice qui mène à l'oppression. - Le pouvoir est un outil neutre qui peut être utilisé pour le bien ou le mal. - - Toutes les autres réponses. + - Le pouvoir est une usurpation illégitime que la société devrait abolir. explanation: | - Dans la philosophie et l'historiographie occidentales, le pouvoir est souvent perçu comme une force corruptrice, susceptible de mener à l'oppression et à l'abus, mettant en avant les dangers de la concentration de l'autorité et les impacts négatifs sur la liberté individuelle. -reviewed: true + Selon le cours, le préjugé culturel qui domine la philosophie et l'historiographie occidentales est que nous devons tout au pouvoir : la liberté, la santé, l'éducation, la sécurité et la prospérité, l'humanité étant perçue comme une "matière inerte" façonnée par le législateur. Bastiat conteste cette vision dominante en affirmant que la réalité du pouvoir est en fait l'oppression. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f973b882540..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: पश्चिमी दर्शन और इतिहास लेखन में सत्ता को लेकर मुख्य नज़रिया क्या है? -answer: ताक़त एक ऐसी चीज़ है जो इंसान को बिगाड़ देती है और ज़ुल्म की तरफ़ ले जाती है -wrong_answers: - - ताक़त इंसानियत की तरक़्क़ी और ख़ुशहाली के लिए ज़रूरी है - - ताकत एक निष्पक्ष औज़ार है जो अच्छे या बुरे काम के लिए इस्तेमाल किया जा सकता है - - ऊपर लिखा सब -explanation: | - पश्चिमी दर्शन और इतिहास लेखन में, सत्ता को अक्सर एक भ्रष्ट करने वाली ताकत के रूप में देखा जाता है, जो अत्याचार और दुरुपयोग की ओर ले जाती है। यह अधिकारों के केंद्रीकरण के खतरों और व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता पर पड़ने वाले नकारात्मक प्रभावों को उजागर करता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3dedec8b463..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa pandangan dominan tentang kekuasaan dalam filsafat dan historiografi Barat? -answer: Kekuasaan adalah sebuah kekuatan yang merusak yang mengarah pada penindasan -wrong_answers: - - Kekuasaan diperlukan untuk kemajuan dan kemakmuran umat manusia - - Kekuasaan adalah alat netral yang dapat digunakan untuk kebaikan atau kejahatan - - Semua di atas -explanation: | - Dalam filsafat dan historiografi Barat, kekuasaan sering dilihat sebagai kekuatan yang merusak, yang kemungkinan akan mengarah pada penindasan dan penyalahgunaan, menyoroti bahaya konsentrasi otoritas dan dampak negatif terhadap kebebasan individu. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dcfd27f2e5f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la visione dominante del potere nella filosofia e storiografia occidentale? -answer: Il potere è una forza corruttrice che porta all'oppressione -wrong_answers: - - Il potere è necessario per il progresso e la prosperità dell'umanità - - Il potere è uno strumento neutro che può essere utilizzato per il bene o per il male - - Tutte le risposte sopra menzionate -explanation: | - Nella filosofia e storiografia occidentale, il potere è spesso visto come una forza corruttrice, probabile che porti all'oppressione e all'abuso, evidenziando i pericoli della concentrazione di autorità e gli impatti negativi sulla libertà individuale. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 775dae0353a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 西洋哲学と歴史学における力の支配的な見解とは何ですか？ -answer: 力は腐敗の原因であり、抑圧につながる -wrong_answers: - - 力は人類の進歩と繁栄に必要である - - 力は善悪のどちらにも使える中立的な道具である - - 上記すべて -explanation: | - 西洋哲学と歴史学において、力はしばしば腐敗の原因と見なされ、抑圧や虐待につながる可能性が高いとされます。これは、権力集中の危険性と個人の自由への否定的な影響を強調しています。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 327d84f6ab3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 서양 철학과 역사학에서 권력에 대한 지배적인 견해는 무엇인가요? -answer: 권력은 억압으로 이어지는 부패한 힘입니다 -wrong_answers: - - 인류의 발전과 번영을 위해서는 힘이 필요합니다 - - 권력은 선과 악을 위해 사용될 수 있는 중립적인 도구입니다 - - 위의 모든 사항 -explanation: | - 서양 철학과 역사학에서 권력은 종종 억압과 남용으로 이어질 수 있는 부패한 힘으로 간주되어 권위 집중의 위험성과 개인의 자유에 미치는 부정적인 영향을 강조합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5416d92482d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er det dominerende synet på makt i vestlig filosofi og historiografi? -answer: Makt er en korrumperende kraft som fører til undertrykkelse -wrong_answers: - - Makt er nødvendig for menneskehetens fremgang og velstand - - Makt er et nøytralt verktøy som kan brukes til både godt og ondt - - Alle ovennevnte -explanation: | - I vestlig filosofi og historiografi blir makt ofte sett på som en korrumperende kraft, sannsynligvis vil føre til undertrykkelse og misbruk, noe som fremhever farene ved konsentrasjon av autoritet og de negative innvirkningene på individuell frihet. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index feae38e9802..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de dominante kijk op macht in de westerse filosofie en geschiedschrijving? -answer: Macht is een corrumperende kracht die leidt tot onderdrukking -wrong_answers: - - Macht is noodzakelijk voor de vooruitgang en welvaart van de mensheid - - Macht is een neutraal instrument dat ten goede of ten kwade kan worden gebruikt - - Alle bovenstaande -explanation: | - In de westerse filosofie en geschiedschrijving wordt macht vaak gezien als een corrumperende kracht die waarschijnlijk leidt tot onderdrukking en misbruik, waarbij de gevaren van autoriteitsconcentratie en de negatieve gevolgen voor de individuele vrijheid worden benadrukt. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b1d4ae68b19..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest dominujący pogląd na władzę w zachodniej filozofii i historiografii? -answer: Władza jest korumpującą siłą, która prowadzi do ucisku -wrong_answers: - - Moc jest niezbędna dla postępu i dobrobytu ludzkości - - Władza jest neutralnym narzędziem, które może być wykorzystane dla dobra lub zła - - Wszystkie powyższe -explanation: | - W zachodniej filozofii i historiografii władza jest często postrzegana jako siła korumpująca, która może prowadzić do ucisku i nadużyć, podkreślając niebezpieczeństwa związane z koncentracją władzy i negatywny wpływ na wolność jednostki. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 29d61f24e08..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a visão dominante sobre o poder na filosofia e historiografia ocidentais? -answer: O poder é uma força corruptora que leva à opressão -wrong_answers: - - O poder é necessário para o progresso e prosperidade da humanidade - - O poder é uma ferramenta neutra que pode ser usada para o bem ou para o mal - - Todas as opções acima -explanation: | - Na filosofia e historiografia ocidentais, o poder é frequentemente visto como uma força corruptora, propensa a levar à opressão e abuso, destacando os perigos da concentração de autoridade e os impactos negativos na liberdade individual. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 86a7989fa2e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki gihambaye mu vy’ububasha mu vy’ubuhinga bwa filozofiya no mu vy’amateka y’Uburengero? -answer: Ububasha ni inguvu yonona ijana mu guhahaza . -wrong_answers: - - Ububasha burakenewe kugira ngo abantu batere imbere kandi batere imbere - - Ububasha ni igikoresho kitagira aho kigarukira gishobora gukoreshwa mu vyiza canke mu bibi . - - Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -explanation: | - Mu buhinga bwa filozofiya n’amateka y’Uburengero, ububasha akenshi bubonwa nk’inkomezi zishobora kwonona, zishobora gutuma umuntu ahahazwa no guhohoterwa, ivyo bikaba bigaragaza akaga ko kwibanda ku butegetsi be n’ingaruka mbi bishobora kugira ku mwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26a23e45aea..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каково доминирующее представление о власти в западной философии и историографии? -answer: Власть является разлагающей силой, которая приводит к угнетению -wrong_answers: - - Власть необходима для прогресса и процветания человечества - - Власть - это нейтральный инструмент, который может быть использован как во благо, так и во зло - - Все вышеперечисленное -explanation: | - В западной философии и историографии власть часто рассматривается как разлагающая сила, склонная к приведению к угнетению и злоупотреблениям, подчеркивая опасности концентрации авторитета и негативные последствия для индивидуальной свободы. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5acb7d72e20..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koji je dominantni pogled na moć u zapadnoj filozofiji i istoriografiji? -answer: Moć je sila koja korumpira i vodi ka ugnjetavanju -wrong_answers: - - Moć je neophodna za napredak i prosperitet čovečanstva. - - Moć je neutralno sredstvo koje se može koristiti za dobro ili zlo. - - Sve od navedenog -explanation: | - U zapadnoj filozofiji i istoriografiji, moć se često posmatra kao korumpirajuća sila, koja verovatno vodi ka ugnjetavanju i zloupotrebi, ističući opasnosti koncentracije autoriteta i negativne posledice po individualnu slobodu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 68b9142c6ff..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken är den dominerande synen på makt i västerländsk filosofi och historieskrivning? -answer: Makt är en korrumperande kraft som leder till förtryck -wrong_answers: - - Kraft är nödvändigt för mänsklighetens framsteg och välstånd - - Makt är ett neutralt verktyg som kan användas för gott eller ont - - Alla ovanstående -explanation: | - I västerländsk filosofi och historieskrivning ses makt ofta som en korrumperande kraft som sannolikt leder till förtryck och missbruk, vilket belyser farorna med auktoritetskoncentration och de negativa effekterna på individens frihet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9117716aa63..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, ni mtazamo gani mkuu wa nguvu katika falsafa na historia ya Magharibi? -answer: Nguvu ni nguvu ya uharibifu ambayo inaongoza kwa ukandamizaji -wrong_answers: - - Nguvu ni muhimu kwa maendeleo na ustawi wa wanadamu - - Nguvu ni chombo kisicho na upande ambacho kinaweza kutumika kwa mema au mabaya - - Yote ya hapo juu -explanation: | - Katika falsafa na historia ya Kimagharibi, mamlaka mara nyingi huonekana kama nguvu inayoharibu, ambayo inaweza kusababisha ukandamizaji na unyanyasaji, ikionyesha hatari za mkusanyiko wa mamlaka na athari mbaya kwa uhuru wa mtu binafsi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1f168c71bd6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: มุมมองที่โดดเด่นเกี่ยวกับอำนาจในปรัชญาตะวันตกและประวัติศาสตร์คืออะไร? -answer: อำนาจเป็นแรงที่ทำให้เกิดการทุจริตซึ่งนำไปสู่การกดขี่ -wrong_answers: - - อำนาจเป็นสิ่งจำเป็นสำหรับความก้าวหน้าและความเจริญรุ่งเรืองของมนุษยชาติ - - อำนาจเป็นเครื่องมือที่เป็นกลางที่สามารถใช้เพื่อความดีหรือความชั่ว - - ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -explanation: | - ในปรัชญาและประวัติศาสตร์ตะวันตก อำนาจมักถูกมองว่าเป็นแรงที่ทำให้เกิดการทุจริต มีแนวโน้มที่จะนำไปสู่การกดขี่และการละเมิด ซึ่งเน้นถึงอันตรายของการรวมศูนย์อำนาจและผลกระทบเชิงลบต่อเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f1eb148c8b8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Batı felsefesi ve tarih yazımında güce ilişkin baskın görüş nedir? -answer: Güç, baskıya yol açan yozlaştırıcı bir güçtür -wrong_answers: - - Güç, insanlığın ilerlemesi ve refahı için gereklidir - - Güç, iyilik ya da kötülük için kullanılabilen tarafsız bir araçtır - - Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -explanation: | - Batı felsefesi ve tarih yazımında güç genellikle yozlaştırıcı bir güç olarak görülür, baskı ve istismara yol açması muhtemeldir, otorite yoğunlaşmasının tehlikelerini ve bireysel özgürlük üzerindeki olumsuz etkilerini vurgular. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3fb2274a077..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Quan điểm chủ đạo về quyền lực trong triết học và sử học phương Tây là gì? -answer: Quyền lực là một lực lượng làm hỏng, dẫn đến sự áp bức -wrong_answers: - - Quyền lực là cần thiết cho sự tiến bộ và thịnh vượng của nhân loại - - Quyền lực là một công cụ trung lập có thể được sử dụng cho điều tốt hoặc xấu - - Tất cả các phương án trên -explanation: | - Trong triết học và sử học phương Tây, quyền lực thường được coi là một lực lượng làm hỏng, có khả năng dẫn đến sự áp bức và lạm dụng, nhấn mạnh nguy cơ của việc tập trung quyền lực và những tác động tiêu cực đối với tự do cá nhân. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 96c3e8d917a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 西方哲学和历史学中对权力的主导观点是什么？ -answer: 权力是导致压迫的腐蚀性力量 -wrong_answers: - - 权力是人类进步和繁荣所必需的 - - 权力是一个中性工具，可用于善或恶 - - 上述所有观点 -explanation: | - 在西方哲学和历史学中，权力通常被视为一种腐蚀性力量，很可能导致压迫和滥用，这突出了权威集中的危险和对个人自由的负面影响。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e5ca886c194..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/005/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 西方哲學和歷史學中主流的權力觀是什麼？ -answer: 權力是導致壓迫的腐敗力量 -wrong_answers: - - 電力是人類進步與繁榮的必要條件 - - 權力是中性的工具，可以用來行善或作惡 - - 以上皆是 -explanation: | - 在西方哲學和歷史學中，權力經常被視為一種腐敗的力量，很可能會導致壓迫和濫用，突顯出權力集中的危險以及對個人自由的負面影響。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b4160c6ee34..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Според Актън каква роля е изиграла Католическата църква за възхода на свободата в Европа? -answer: Всичко изброено по-горе -wrong_answers: - - Той насърчава разделението на властите и баланса на силите - - Той защитаваше индивидуалните права и свободата на съвестта - - Насърчава критичното мислене и поставянето на авторитети под въпрос -explanation: | - Според Актън Католическата църква е изиграла решаваща роля за възхода на свободата в Европа, като е насърчавала разделението на властите, защитавала е индивидуалните права и е поощрявала критичния дух, допринасяйки по този начин за формирането на по-свободно общество. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a0b7a74721b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakou roli podle Actona sehrála katolická církev v rozvoji svobody v Evropě? -answer: Všechny výše uvedené -wrong_answers: - - Podporovala rozdělení mocí a rovnováhu sil - - Obhajovala individuální práva a svobodu svědomí - - Podněcovala kritické myšlení a zpochybňování autorit -explanation: | - Podle Actona hrála katolická církev zásadní roli v rozvoji svobody v Evropě tím, že podporovala rozdělení mocí, obhajovala individuální práva a podněcovala kritického ducha, čímž přispěla k formování svobodnější společnosti. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 27c9378680f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welche Rolle spielte die katholische Kirche nach Acton beim Aufstieg der Freiheit in Europa? -answer: Alle oben genannten -wrong_answers: - - Sie förderte die Gewaltenteilung und das Gleichgewicht der Kräfte - - Sie verteidigte individuelle Rechte und die Freiheit des Gewissens - - Sie ermutigte zum kritischen Denken und zum Hinterfragen von Autoritäten -explanation: | - Nach Acton spielte die katholische Kirche eine entscheidende Rolle beim Aufstieg der Freiheit in Europa, indem sie die Gewaltenteilung förderte, individuelle Rechte verteidigte und einen kritischen Geist ermutigte, was zur Bildung einer freieren Gesellschaft beitrug. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/en.yml index c14b32c1f7e..171f38ad08b 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: According to Acton, what role did the Catholic Church play in the rise of freedom in Europe? -answer: All of the above +answer: It promoted the separation of powers and the balance of forces wrong_answers: - - It promoted the separation of powers and the balance of forces - It defended individual rights and freedom of conscience + - It established democratic institutions to replace monarchical rule - It encouraged critical thinking and questioning authority explanation: | - According to Acton, the Catholic Church played a crucial role in the rise of freedom in Europe by promoting the separation of powers, defending individual rights, and encouraging a critical spirit, thus contributing to the formation of a freer society. + According to Acton, the Catholic Church was the only force capable of challenging the authority of feudal lords, monarchs, and emperors, creating a power struggle that prevented the concentration of absolute power and proved crucial for the rise of liberty. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c1dad81e445..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Según Acton, ¿Qué papel desempeñó la Iglesia Católica en el surgimiento de la libertad en Europa? -answer: Todas las anteriores -wrong_answers: - - Promovió la separación de poderes y el equilibrio de fuerzas - - Defendió los derechos individuales y la libertad de conciencia - - Fomentó el pensamiento crítico y el cuestionamiento de la autoridad -explanation: | - Según Acton, la Iglesia Católica desempeñó un papel crucial en el surgimiento de la libertad en Europa al promover la separación de poderes, defender los derechos individuales y fomentar un espíritu crítico, contribuyendo así a la formación de una sociedad más libre. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cb02c279fde..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Actoni sõnul, millist rolli mängis Katoliku Kirik vabaduse tõusus Euroopas? -answer: Kõik eelnevad -wrong_answers: - - See propageeris võimude lahusust ja jõudude tasakaalu - - See kaitses individuaalseid õigusi ja südametunnistuse vabadust - - See julgustas kriitilist mõtlemist ja autoriteedi küsimärgi alla seadmist -explanation: | - Actoni sõnul mängis Katoliku Kirik olulist rolli vabaduse tõusus Euroopas, propageerides võimude lahusust, kaitstes individuaalseid õigusi ja julgustades kriitilist vaimu, aidates seeläbi kaasa vabama ühiskonna kujunemisele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 476c07a24b1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: طبق نظر اکتون، کلیسای کاتولیک چه نقشی در ظهور آزادی در اروپا ایفا کرد؟ -answer: همه موارد فوق -wrong_answers: - - این ترویج جدایی قوا و تعادل نیروها را به همراه داشت - - از حقوق فردی و آزادی وجدان دفاع کرد - - این امر تفکر انتقادی و پرسش از قدرت را تشویق کرد. -explanation: | - به گفته اکتون، کلیسای کاتولیک نقش مهمی در ظهور آزادی در اروپا ایفا کرد، با ترویج تفکیک قوا، دفاع از حقوق فردی و تشویق روحیه انتقادی، و بدین ترتیب به شکل‌گیری جامعه‌ای آزادتر کمک کرد. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ca5ea9db632..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä rooli katolisella kirkolla oli vapauden nousussa Euroopassa Actonin mukaan? -answer: Kaikki yllä mainitut -wrong_answers: - - Se edisti vallan eriyttämistä ja voimien tasapainoa - - Se puolusti yksilön oikeuksia ja omantunnon vapautta - - Se kannusti kriittiseen ajatteluun ja auktoriteettien kyseenalaistamiseen -explanation: | - Actonin mukaan katolisella kirkolla oli ratkaiseva rooli vapauden nousussa Euroopassa, sillä se edisti vallan eriyttämistä, puolusti yksilön oikeuksia ja kannusti kriittiseen henkeen, näin ollen edistäen vapaamman yhteiskunnan muodostumista. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fr.yml index 89ed56aa4de..a98070dd0a0 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Selon Acton, quel rôle l'Église catholique a-t-elle joué dans l'essor de la liberté en Europe ? -answer: Toutes les réponses ci-dessus. +answer: Elle a favorisé la séparation des pouvoirs et l'équilibre des forces. wrong_answers: - - Elle a promu la séparation des pouvoirs et l'équilibre des forces. - Elle a défendu les droits individuels et la liberté de conscience. + - Elle a établi des institutions démocratiques pour remplacer le pouvoir monarchique. - Elle a encouragé l'esprit critique et la remise en question de l'autorité. explanation: | - Selon Acton, l'Église catholique a joué un rôle crucial dans l'essor de la liberté en Europe en promouvant la séparation des pouvoirs, défendant les droits individuels et encourageant un esprit critique, contribuant ainsi à la formation d'une société plus libre. -reviewed: true + Selon Acton, l'Église catholique était la seule force capable de contester l'autorité des seigneurs féodaux, des monarques et des empereurs, créant une lutte de pouvoir qui a empêché la concentration du pouvoir absolu et s'est avérée cruciale pour l'essor de la liberté. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a2dffb50885..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: एक्टन के मुताबिक, कैथोलिक चर्च ने यूरोप में आज़ादी के उदय में क्या भूमिका निभाई? -answer: ऊपर लिखा सब कुछ -wrong_answers: - - इसने अधिकारों के बँटवारे और ताक़तों के संतुलन को बढ़ावा दिया - - इसने व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों और विवेक की स्वतंत्रता की रक्षा की। - - इसने आलोचनात्मक सोच को बढ़ावा दिया और अधिकारियों पर सवाल उठाने को प्रोत्साहित किया। -explanation: | - ऐक्टन के अनुसार, कैथोलिक चर्च ने यूरोप में आज़ादी के उदय में अहम भूमिका निभाई। उसने अलग-अलग सत्ताओं को बाँटने, व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों की रक्षा करने और आलोचनात्मक सोच को बढ़ावा देकर एक स्वतंत्र समाज के निर्माण में योगदान दिया। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1d778fb2f8a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Menurut Acton, peran apa yang dimainkan oleh Gereja Katolik dalam munculnya kebebasan di Eropa? -answer: Semua di atas -wrong_answers: - - Itu mempromosikan pemisahan kekuasaan dan keseimbangan kekuatan - - Itu membela hak-hak individu dan kebebasan berpikir - - Itu mendorong pemikiran kritis dan mempertanyakan otoritas -explanation: | - Menurut Acton, Gereja Katolik memainkan peran penting dalam munculnya kebebasan di Eropa dengan mempromosikan pemisahan kekuasaan, membela hak-hak individu, dan mendorong semangat kritis, sehingga berkontribusi pada pembentukan masyarakat yang lebih bebas. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 716a4f7db77..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Secondo Acton, quale ruolo ha avuto la Chiesa Cattolica nell'ascesa della libertà in Europa? -answer: Tutti i punti sopra -wrong_answers: - - Ha promosso la separazione dei poteri e l'equilibrio delle forze - - Ha difeso i diritti individuali e la libertà di coscienza - - Ha incoraggiato il pensiero critico e il mettere in discussione l'autorità -explanation: | - Secondo Acton, la Chiesa Cattolica ha svolto un ruolo cruciale nell'ascesa della libertà in Europa promuovendo la separazione dei poteri, difendendo i diritti individuali e incoraggiando uno spirito critico, contribuendo così alla formazione di una società più libera. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 149d0c2a818..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Actonによると、ヨーロッパにおける自由の台頭においてカトリック教会はどのような役割を果たしたか？ -answer: 上記のすべて -wrong_answers: - - 権力の分離と力のバランスを促進した - - 個人の権利と良心の自由を守った - - 批判的思考と権威への疑問を奨励した -explanation: | - Actonによると、カトリック教会は権力の分離を促進し、個人の権利を守り、批判的精神を奨励することで、より自由な社会の形成に貢献し、ヨーロッパにおける自由の台頭において重要な役割を果たしました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 90513a4c46a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 액튼에 따르면 가톨릭 교회는 유럽에서 자유가 부상하는 과정에서 어떤 역할을 했나요? -answer: 위의 모든 사항 -wrong_answers: - - 권력 분립과 힘의 균형을 촉진했습니다 - - 개인의 권리와 양심의 자유를 옹호했습니다 - - 비판적 사고와 권위에 대한 의문을 장려합니다 -explanation: | - 액튼에 따르면 가톨릭 교회는 권력 분립을 촉진하고 개인의 권리를 옹호하며 비판 정신을 장려함으로써 유럽에서 자유가 부상하는 데 중요한 역할을 했으며, 더 자유로운 사회가 형성되는 데 기여했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ac103a9190d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ifølge Acton, hvilken rolle spilte den katolske kirken i fremveksten av frihet i Europa? -answer: Alle ovennevnte -wrong_answers: - - Den fremmet maktens tredeling og maktbalansen - - Den forsvarte individuelle rettigheter og samvittighetsfrihet - - Den oppmuntret til kritisk tenkning og å stille spørsmål ved autoriteter -explanation: | - Ifølge Acton spilte den katolske kirken en avgjørende rolle i fremveksten av frihet i Europa ved å fremme maktens tredeling, forsvare individuelle rettigheter og oppmuntre til en kritisk ånd, noe som bidro til dannelsen av et friere samfunn. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 575460a2f41..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welke rol speelde de katholieke kerk volgens Acton in de opkomst van de vrijheid in Europa? -answer: Alle bovenstaande -wrong_answers: - - Het bevorderde de scheiding der machten en het machtsevenwicht - - Het verdedigde individuele rechten en gewetensvrijheid - - Het stimuleerde kritisch denken en het in twijfel trekken van autoriteit -explanation: | - Volgens Acton speelde de katholieke kerk een cruciale rol in de opkomst van de vrijheid in Europa door de scheiding der machten te bevorderen, individuele rechten te verdedigen en een kritische geest aan te moedigen, wat bijdroeg aan de vorming van een vrijere samenleving. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 995996d1383..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Według Actona, jaką rolę odegrał Kościół katolicki w powstaniu wolności w Europie? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe -wrong_answers: - - Promowała ona podział władzy i równowagę sił - - Broniła praw jednostki i wolności sumienia - - Zachęcała do krytycznego myślenia i kwestionowania autorytetów -explanation: | - Według Actona Kościół katolicki odegrał kluczową rolę w powstaniu wolności w Europie, promując podział władzy, broniąc praw jednostki i zachęcając do krytycznego ducha, przyczyniając się w ten sposób do kształtowania bardziej wolnego społeczeństwa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 86a5b7b3eda..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Segundo Acton, qual papel a Igreja Católica desempenhou no surgimento da liberdade na Europa? -answer: Todas as opções acima -wrong_answers: - - Ela promoveu a separação dos poderes e o equilíbrio de forças - - Ela defendeu os direitos individuais e a liberdade de consciência - - Ela incentivou o pensamento crítico e a questionar a autoridade -explanation: | - De acordo com Acton, a Igreja Católica desempenhou um papel crucial no surgimento da liberdade na Europa ao promover a separação dos poderes, defender os direitos individuais e incentivar um espírito crítico, contribuindo assim para a formação de uma sociedade mais livre. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26e72cbcc70..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Nk’uko Acton abivuga, ni uruhara uruhe Ekleziya Gatolika yagize mu gutuma umwidegemvyo utera imbere mu Buraya? -answer: Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -wrong_answers: - - Yarateye imbere ugutandukanya ububasha n'uburinganire bw'inguvu . - - Rwaraburanira uburenganzira bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe be n’umwidegemvyo w’ijwi ryo mu mutima . - - Yaremesheje guca irya n’ino ibintu no kwibaza ubukuru . -explanation: | - Nk’uko Acton abivuga, Ekleziya Gatolika yarafise uruhara runini mu gutuma umwidegemvyo utera imbere mu Buraya mu guteza imbere ugutandukanya ubutegetsi, mu kugwanira uburenganzira bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe no mu kuremesha impwemu yo guca imanza, gutyo bikaba vyarafashije mu gushinga igihugu gifise umwidegemvyo kuruta. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0b8774615da..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какую роль, по мнению Эктона, сыграла Католическая церковь в возникновении свободы в Европе? -answer: Все вышеперечисленное -wrong_answers: - - Она способствовала разделению властей и балансу сил - - Она защищала индивидуальные права и свободу совести - - Она поощряла критическое мышление и подвергание сомнению авторитетов -explanation: | - Согласно Эктону, Католическая церковь сыграла ключевую роль в возникновении свободы в Европе, способствуя разделению властей, защите индивидуальных прав и поощрению критического духа, тем самым внося вклад в формирование более свободного общества. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6d6011ae4f7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Prema Actonu, koja je uloga Katoličke crkve bila u usponu slobode u Evropi? -answer: Sve navedeno -wrong_answers: - - Promovisala je podelu vlasti i ravnotežu snaga - - Branio je individualna prava i slobodu savesti - - Podsticao je kritičko razmišljanje i preispitivanje autoriteta. -explanation: | - Prema Actonu, Katolička crkva je igrala ključnu ulogu u usponu slobode u Evropi promovisanjem podele vlasti, odbranom individualnih prava i podsticanjem kritičkog duha, čime je doprinela formiranju slobodnijeg društva. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 727010861cc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken roll spelade enligt Acton den katolska kyrkan för frihetens framväxt i Europa? -answer: Alla ovanstående -wrong_answers: - - Den främjade maktfördelning och maktbalans - - Den försvarade individuella rättigheter och samvetsfrihet - - Det uppmuntrade till kritiskt tänkande och ifrågasättande av auktoriteter -explanation: | - Enligt Acton spelade den katolska kyrkan en avgörande roll för frihetens framväxt i Europa genom att främja maktdelning, försvara individens rättigheter och uppmuntra till en kritisk anda, vilket bidrog till att skapa ett friare samhälle. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 78c1c5caef6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kulingana na Acton, Kanisa Katoliki lilitimiza daraka gani katika kuinuka kwa uhuru huko Ulaya? -answer: Yote ya hapo juu -wrong_answers: - - Ilikuza mgawanyo wa mamlaka na usawa wa nguvu - - Ilitetea haki za mtu binafsi na uhuru wa dhamiri - - Ilihimiza mamlaka ya kufikiri kwa kina na kuhoji mamlaka -explanation: | - Kulingana na Acton, Kanisa Katoliki lilitimiza fungu muhimu katika kuinuka kwa uhuru katika Ulaya kwa kuendeleza mgawanyo wa mamlaka, kutetea haki za mtu binafsi, na kutia moyo roho ya kuchambua, na hivyo kuchangia kufanyizwa kwa jamii huru. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b7a50d7dd85..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ตามที่แอคตันกล่าว บทบาทของคริสตจักรคาทอลิกในการเพิ่มขึ้นของเสรีภาพในยุโรปคืออะไร? -answer: ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -wrong_answers: - - มันส่งเสริมการแยกอำนาจและความสมดุลของกองกำลัง - - มันปกป้องสิทธิส่วนบุคคลและเสรีภาพในการมีมโนธรรม - - มันส่งเสริมการคิดเชิงวิพากษ์และการตั้งคำถามต่ออำนาจ -explanation: | - ตามที่แอคตันกล่าวไว้ว่า โบสถ์คาทอลิกมีบทบาทสำคัญในการเพิ่มขึ้นของเสรีภาพในยุโรปโดยส่งเสริมการแยกอำนาจ ปกป้องสิทธิส่วนบุคคล และส่งเสริมจิตวิญญาณวิพากษ์วิจารณ์ ซึ่งมีส่วนช่วยในการสร้างสังคมที่เสรีมากขึ้น -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c498e7523e8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Acton'a göre Katolik Kilisesi Avrupa'da özgürlüğün yükselişinde nasıl bir rol oynamıştır? -answer: Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -wrong_answers: - - Kuvvetler ayrılığını ve güçler dengesini destekledi - - Bireysel hakları ve vicdan özgürlüğünü savundu - - Eleştirel düşünmeyi ve otoriteyi sorgulamayı teşvik etti -explanation: | - Acton'a göre Katolik Kilisesi, güçler ayrılığını teşvik ederek, bireysel hakları savunarak ve eleştirel bir ruhu teşvik ederek Avrupa'da özgürlüğün yükselişinde önemli bir rol oynamış ve böylece daha özgür bir toplumun oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7b4a9017c5f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Theo Acton, Giáo hội Công giáo đã đóng vai trò như thế nào trong sự phát triển của tự do ở Châu Âu? -answer: Tất cả những điều trên -wrong_answers: - - Nó thúc đẩy sự phân chia quyền lực và cân bằng lực lượng - - Nó bảo vệ quyền cá nhân và tự do lương tâm - - Nó khuyến khích tư duy phê phán và đặt câu hỏi với quyền lực -explanation: | - Theo Acton, Giáo hội Công giáo đã đóng một vai trò quan trọng trong sự phát triển của tự do ở Châu Âu bằng cách thúc đẩy sự phân chia quyền lực, bảo vệ quyền cá nhân và khuyến khích tinh thần phê phán, từ đó góp phần hình thành một xã hội tự do hơn. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f2b482ef058..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 根据阿克顿的观点，天主教会在欧洲自由兴起中扮演了什么角色？ -answer: 所有上述答案 -wrong_answers: - - 它促进了权力分立和力量平衡 - - 它捍卫了个人权利和良心自由 - - 它鼓励批判性思维和质疑权威 -explanation: | - 根据阿克顿的观点，天主教会在欧洲自由的兴起中扮演了关键角色，通过促进权力分立、捍卫个人权利，并鼓励批判精神，从而为形成一个更自由的社会做出了贡献。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 42653360d1b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/012/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 根據阿克頓的說法，天主教會在歐洲自由的興起中扮演了什麼角色？ -answer: 以上皆是 -wrong_answers: - - 它促進了三權分立和勢力均衡 - - 它捍衛個人權利和良心自由 - - 它鼓勵批判性思考和質疑權威 -explanation: | - 阿克頓認為，天主教會在歐洲自由的興起中扮演了關鍵性的角色，它提倡三權分立、捍衛個人權利、鼓勵批判精神，從而促進了更自由社會的形成。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f7a1d7b30c8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какво е значението на правния плурализъм в анализа на Харолд Й. Берман? -answer: Всичко изброено по-горе -wrong_answers: - - Това доведе до фрагментация на властта - - Тя насърчава индивидуалната свобода - - Стимулира иновациите -explanation: | - Харолд Бърман подчертава, че правният плурализъм е от решаващо значение, тъй като позволява съвместното съществуване на различни източници на правото, като по този начин насърчава индивидуалната свобода, стимулира иновациите и предотвратява прекомерната концентрация на власт, което обогатява правния пейзаж. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9e889fe2424..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký význam má právní pluralismus v analýze Harolda J. Bermana? -answer: Vše výše uvedené -wrong_answers: - - Vedl k fragmentaci moci - - Podporoval individuální svobodu - - Stimuloval inovace -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman zdůrazňuje, že právní pluralismus je klíčový, protože umožňuje koexistenci různých zdrojů práva, čímž podporuje individuální svobodu, stimuluje inovace a brání nadměrné koncentraci moci, což obohacuje právní krajinu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0a0d4d07b76..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die Bedeutung des rechtlichen Pluralismus in der Analyse von Harold J. Berman? -answer: All das oben Genannte -wrong_answers: - - Es führte zu einer Fragmentierung der Macht - - Es förderte die individuelle Freiheit - - Es stimulierte Innovation -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman betont, dass der rechtliche Pluralismus entscheidend ist, weil er das Nebeneinander verschiedener Rechtsquellen ermöglicht, wodurch individuelle Freiheit gefördert, Innovation stimuliert und eine übermäßige Konzentration von Macht verhindert wird, was die rechtliche Landschaft bereichert. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/en.yml index 6f35d662a50..f14f93f52e7 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the significance of legal pluralism in Harold J. Berman's analysis? -answer: All of the above +answer: It led to a fragmentation of power wrong_answers: - - It led to a fragmentation of power - - It fostered individual freedom - - It stimulated innovation + - It established a single unified legal code across Europe + - It concentrated all legal authority under the Church + - It abolished the distinction between canon law and secular law explanation: | - Harold J. Berman emphasizes that legal pluralism is crucial because it allows for the coexistence of various sources of law, thereby fostering individual freedom, stimulating innovation, and preventing excessive concentration of power, which enriches the legal landscape. + Harold J. Berman emphasizes that legal pluralism fragmented power among competing jurisdictions (canon, royal, feudal, and urban law), preventing its excessive concentration. This fragmentation, in turn, became a driver of freedom and innovation in the Western legal tradition. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 476e8b98849..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la importancia del pluralismo jurídico en el análisis de Harold J. Berman? -answer: Todas las anteriores -wrong_answers: - - Condujo a una fragmentación del poder - - Fomentó la libertad individual - - Estimuló la innovación -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman enfatiza que el pluralismo jurídico es crucial porque permite la coexistencia de diversas fuentes de derecho, fomentando así la libertad individual, estimulando la innovación y previniendo una concentración excesiva de poder, lo que enriquece el paisaje legal. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 41583805878..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on õigusliku pluralismi tähtsus Harold J. Bermani analüüsis? -answer: Kõik eelnevad -wrong_answers: - - See viis võimu killustumiseni - - See soodustas individuaalset vabadust - - See stimuleeris innovatsiooni -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman rõhutab, et õiguslik pluralism on oluline, kuna see võimaldab erinevate õigusallikate kaaskooselu, soodustades seeläbi individuaalset vabadust, stimuleerides innovatsiooni ja hoides ära liigse võimu koondumise, mis rikastab õigusmaastikku. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 03449413ece..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: اهمیت تکثر حقوقی در تحلیل هارولد جی. برمن چیست؟ -answer: همه موارد فوق -wrong_answers: - - این منجر به تکه‌تکه شدن قدرت شد - - این به آزادی فردی پرورش داد - - این نوآوری را تحریک کرد -explanation: | - هارولد جی. برمن تأکید می‌کند که تکثرگرایی حقوقی حیاتی است زیرا امکان همزیستی منابع مختلف قانون را فراهم می‌کند و بدین ترتیب آزادی فردی را تقویت می‌کند، نوآوری را تحریک می‌کند و از تمرکز بیش از حد قدرت جلوگیری می‌کند، که این امر به غنای چشم‌انداز حقوقی می‌افزاید. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f4de2f55047..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on oikeuspluralismin merkitys Harold J. Bermanin analyysissä? -answer: Kaikki yllä mainitut -wrong_answers: - - Se johti vallan pirstoutumiseen - - Se edisti yksilön vapautta - - Se stimuloi innovaatiota -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman korostaa, että oikeuspluralismi on tärkeää, koska se mahdollistaa erilaisten lakien rinnakkaiselon, mikä edistää yksilön vapautta, stimuloi innovaatiota ja estää vallan liiallisen keskittymisen, mikä rikastuttaa oikeudellista maisemaa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fr.yml index 498ba793e24..b80c849e314 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est l'importance du pluralisme juridique dans l'analyse d'Harold J. Berman ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: Il a conduit à une fragmentation du pouvoir. wrong_answers: - - Il a conduit à une fragmentation du pouvoir. - - Il a favorisé la liberté individuelle. - - Il a stimulé l'innovation. + - Il a établi un code juridique unique et unifié à travers l'Europe. + - Il a concentré toute l'autorité juridique sous l'Église. + - Il a aboli la distinction entre le droit canonique et le droit séculier. explanation: | - Harold J. Berman souligne que le pluralisme juridique est crucial car il permet la coexistence de diverses sources de droit, favorisant ainsi la liberté individuelle, stimulant l'innovation et empêchant la concentration excessive de pouvoir, ce qui enrichit le paysage juridique. -reviewed: true + Harold J. Berman souligne que le pluralisme juridique a fragmenté le pouvoir entre des juridictions concurrentes (droit canonique, royal, féodal et urbain), empêchant sa concentration excessive. Cette fragmentation est, à son tour, devenue un moteur de liberté et d'innovation dans la tradition juridique occidentale. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 71b2107764c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: हैरोल्ड जे. बरमैन के विश्लेषण में कानूनी बहुलवाद का क्या महत्व है? -answer: ऊपर लिखी सभी बातें -wrong_answers: - - इससे सत्ता का बंटवारा हो गया - - इसने व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता को बढ़ावा दिया - - इसने नवाचार को प्रोत्साहित किया -explanation: | - हैरोल्ड जे. बर्मन इस बात पर जोर देते हैं कि कानूनी बहुलवाद बहुत जरूरी है क्योंकि यह कानून के विभिन्न स्रोतों के साथ-साथ अस्तित्व में रहने की अनुमति देता है, जिससे व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता को बढ़ावा मिलता है, नवाचार को प्रोत्साहन मिलता है और सत्ता के अत्यधिक केंद्रीकरण को रोका जा सकता है, जो कानूनी परिदृश्य को समृद्ध बनाता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1326d1309b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa arti penting pluralisme hukum dalam analisis Harold J. Berman? -answer: Semua di atas -wrong_answers: - - Ini menyebabkan fragmentasi kekuasaan - - Ini mendorong kebebasan individu - - Ini merangsang inovasi -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman menekankan bahwa pluralisme hukum sangat penting karena memungkinkan koeksistensi berbagai sumber hukum, dengan demikian mendorong kebebasan individu, merangsang inovasi, dan mencegah konsentrasi kekuasaan yang berlebihan, yang memperkaya lanskap hukum. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 91d3d52a773..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è il significato del pluralismo legale nell'analisi di Harold J. Berman? -answer: Tutte le opzioni sopra indicate -wrong_answers: - - Ha portato a una frammentazione del potere - - Ha favorito la libertà individuale - - Ha stimolato l'innovazione -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman sottolinea che il pluralismo legale è fondamentale perché permette la coesistenza di varie fonti di diritto. In questo modo favorisce la libertà individuale, stimola l'innovazione prevenendo così una eccessiva concentrazione di potere e arricchisce il panorama legale. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e97e3297546..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ハロルド・J・バーマンの分析における法的多元主義の重要性は何ですか？ -answer: すべての上記 -wrong_answers: - - 権力の分断をもたらした - - 個人の自由を促進した - - 革新を刺激した -explanation: | - ハロルド・J・バーマンは、法的多元主義が重要であると強調しています。これは、様々な法の源が共存することを可能にし、それによって個人の自由を促進し、革新を刺激し、権力の過度な集中を防ぐことで、法の風景を豊かにするからです。 - レビュー済み: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5862e8f9fa3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 해롤드 J. 버먼의 분석에서 법적 다원주의의 의미는 무엇인가요? -answer: 위의 모든 사항 -wrong_answers: - - 이는 권력의 분열로 이어졌습니다 - - 개인의 자유를 촉진합니다 - - 혁신의 자극 -explanation: | - 해롤드 J. 버먼은 법적 다원주의가 다양한 법의 공존을 허용함으로써 개인의 자유를 증진하고 혁신을 촉진하며 과도한 권력 집중을 방지하여 법적 환경을 풍요롭게 한다는 점에서 매우 중요하다고 강조합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ece02369c73..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er betydningen av juridisk pluralisme i Harold J. Bermans analyse? -answer: Alle de ovennevnte -wrong_answers: - - Det førte til en fragmentering av makt - - Det fremmet individuell frihet - - Det stimulerte innovasjon -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman understreker at juridisk pluralisme er avgjørende fordi det tillater sameksistensen av ulike kilder til lov, noe som fremmer individuell frihet, stimulerer innovasjon, og forhindrer overdreven konsentrasjon av makt, noe som beriker det juridiske landskapet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2d9d46910a7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de betekenis van juridisch pluralisme in de analyse van Harold J. Berman? -answer: Alle bovenstaande -wrong_answers: - - Het leidde tot een versnippering van de macht - - Het bevorderde individuele vrijheid - - Het stimuleerde innovatie -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman benadrukt dat juridisch pluralisme cruciaal is omdat het de coëxistentie van verschillende rechtsbronnen mogelijk maakt, waardoor individuele vrijheid wordt bevorderd, innovatie wordt gestimuleerd en buitensporige machtsconcentratie wordt voorkomen, wat het juridische landschap verrijkt. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c0c48df5b63..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakie jest znaczenie pluralizmu prawnego w analizie Harolda J. Bermana? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe -wrong_answers: - - Doprowadziło to do fragmentacji władzy - - Sprzyjało to wolności jednostki - - Stymulowało to innowacyjność -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman podkreśla, że pluralizm prawny ma kluczowe znaczenie, ponieważ pozwala na współistnienie różnych źródeł prawa, wspierając w ten sposób wolność jednostki, stymulując innowacje i zapobiegając nadmiernej koncentracji władzy, co wzbogaca krajobraz prawny. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aa8e5eba388..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a importância do pluralismo jurídico na análise de Harold J. Berman? -answer: Todas as opções acima -wrong_answers: - - Levou a uma fragmentação do poder - - Fomentou a liberdade individual - - Estimulou a inovação -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman enfatiza que o pluralismo jurídico é crucial porque permite a coexistência de várias fontes de direito, fomentando assim a liberdade individual, estimulando a inovação e prevenindo a concentração excessiva de poder, o que enriquece a paisagem legal. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5462ddd0a45..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni akamaro akahe k’ubunywanyi bw’amategeko mu icegeranyo ca Harold J. Berman? -answer: Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -wrong_answers: - - Vyatumye ubutegetsi buca ibice . - - Yarateye imbere umwidegemvyo w'umuntu ku giti ciwe . - - Yatumye habaho ubuhinga bushasha . -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman ashimika ku vy’uko ubunywanyi bw’amategeko ari ikintu gihambaye cane kubera ko butuma amasoko atandukanye y’amategeko abaho hamwe, gutyo bikaba bituma umuntu agira umwidegemvyo, bigatuma habaho ubuhinga bushasha, kandi bikabuza kwibanda cane ku bubasha, ivyo bikaba bituma ivy’amategeko bitunganywa. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a03467ba7eb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Каково значение правового плюрализма в анализе Гарольда Дж. Бермана? -answer: Все вышеперечисленное -wrong_answers: - - Это привело к фрагментации власти - - Это способствовало индивидуальной свободе - - Это стимулировало инновации -explanation: | - Гарольд Дж. Берман подчеркивает, что правовой плюрализм крайне важен, поскольку он позволяет сосуществовать различным источникам права, тем самым способствуя индивидуальной свободе, стимулированию инноваций и предотвращению чрезмерной концентрации власти, что обогащает правовой ландшафт. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ab145d4fcd6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koji je značaj pravnog pluralizma u analizi Harolda J. Bermana? -answer: Sve navedeno -wrong_answers: - - To je dovelo do fragmentacije moći - - Podsticalo je individualnu slobodu - - Podstaklo je inovaciju -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman naglašava da je pravni pluralizam ključan jer omogućava koegzistenciju različitih izvora prava, čime se podstiče individualna sloboda, stimulira inovacija i sprečava prekomerna koncentracija moći, što obogaćuje pravni pejzaž. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b11a7e69570..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken betydelse har den juridiska pluralismen i Harold J. Bermans analys? -answer: Alla ovanstående -wrong_answers: - - Det ledde till en fragmentering av makten - - Den främjade individuell frihet - - Det stimulerade innovation -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman betonar att rättspluralism är avgörande eftersom den möjliggör samexistens mellan olika rättskällor och därigenom främjar individuell frihet, stimulerar innovation och förhindrar överdriven maktkoncentration, vilket berikar det rättsliga landskapet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 06ca26d5242..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, kuna umuhimu gani wa wingi wa kisheria katika uchambuzi wa Harold J. Berman? -answer: Yote ya hapo juu -wrong_answers: - - Ilisababisha mgawanyiko wa madaraka - - Ilikuza uhuru wa mtu binafsi - - Ilichochea uvumbuzi -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman anasisitiza kwamba wingi wa sheria ni muhimu kwa sababu unaruhusu kuwepo kwa vyanzo mbalimbali vya sheria, na hivyo kukuza uhuru wa mtu binafsi, kuchochea uvumbuzi, na kuzuia mkusanyiko wa nguvu kupita kiasi, ambao unaboresha hali ya kisheria. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bafef1be5f2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ความสำคัญของพหุนิยมทางกฎหมายในบทวิเคราะห์ของ Harold J. Berman คืออะไร? -answer: ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -wrong_answers: - - มันนำไปสู่การกระจายอำนาจ - - มันส่งเสริมเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล - - มันกระตุ้นนวัตกรรม -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman เน้นย้ำว่าพหุนิยมทางกฎหมายมีความสำคัญเนื่องจากมันอนุญาตให้มีการอยู่ร่วมกันของแหล่งกฎหมายต่าง ๆ ซึ่งส่งเสริมเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล กระตุ้นนวัตกรรม และป้องกันการรวมศูนย์อำนาจที่มากเกินไป ซึ่งทำให้ภูมิทัศน์ทางกฎหมายมีความหลากหลายมากขึ้น -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a92eb0f24ba..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Harold J. Berman'ın analizinde hukuki çoğulculuğun önemi nedir? -answer: Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -wrong_answers: - - Gücün parçalanmasına yol açtı - - Bireysel özgürlüğü teşvik etti - - İnovasyonu teşvik etti -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman, hukuki çoğulculuğun çok önemli olduğunu, çünkü çeşitli hukuk kaynaklarının bir arada var olmasına izin verdiğini, böylece bireysel özgürlüğü teşvik ettiğini, yeniliği teşvik ettiğini ve hukuk ortamını zenginleştiren aşırı güç yoğunlaşmasını önlediğini vurgulamaktadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a539032cf7b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ý nghĩa của chủ nghĩa đa nguyên pháp lý trong phân tích của Harold J. Berman là gì? -answer: Tất cả những điều trên -wrong_answers: - - Nó dẫn đến sự phân mảnh quyền lực - - Nó nuôi dưỡng tự do cá nhân - - Nó kích thích sự đổi mới -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman nhấn mạnh rằng chủ nghĩa đa nguyên pháp lý rất quan trọng vì nó cho phép sự đồng tồn của nhiều nguồn pháp luật, từ đó nuôi dưỡng tự do cá nhân, kích thích sự đổi mới và ngăn chặn sự tập trung quyền lực quá mức, làm phong phú thêm cảnh quan pháp lý. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 92ef5e88f0b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 哈罗德·J·伯曼分析中法律多元主义的重要性是什么？ -answer: 以上所有 -wrong_answers: - - 它导致了权力的碎片化 - - 它促进了个人自由 - - 它刺激了创新 -explanation: - 哈罗德·J·伯曼强调，法律多元主义至关重要，因为它允许各种法律来源的共存，从而促进个人自由，刺激创新，并防止权力过度集中，这丰富了法律景观。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6f3662199ca..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/014/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 在 Harold J. Berman 的分析中，法律多元論的意義何在？ -answer: 以上皆是 -wrong_answers: - - 這導致權力分散 - - 它促進了個人自由 - - 它激發了創新 -explanation: | - Harold J. Berman 強調，法律多元化之所以至關重要，是因為它允許各種法律來源共存，從而促進個人自由、激勵創新，並防止權力過度集中，從而豐富法律面貌。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 12a80b4bf30..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е основната критика на анализа на Маркс? -answer: Всичко изброено по-горе -wrong_answers: - - Маркс не отчита ролята на политическите институции в историята - - Маркс подценява значението на иновациите и техническия прогрес - - Маркс има погрешна представа за същността на печалбата и експлоатацията -explanation: | - Критиците на анализа на Маркс изтъкват някои моменти, сред които пренебрегването на политическите институции, подценяването на иновациите и техническия прогрес, както и оспорваното разбиране за печалбата и експлоатацията, които предполагат твърде опростен поглед върху икономическата динамика. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b9c1b5dbb49..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaká je hlavní kritika Marxovy analýzy? -answer: Všechny výše uvedené -wrong_answers: - - Marx nebere v úvahu roli politických institucí v historii - - Marx podceňuje význam inovace a technického pokroku - - Marx má chybný pohled na povahu zisku a vykořisťování -explanation: | - Kritici Marxovy analýzy poukazují na několik bodů, jako je jeho ignorování politických institucí, podceňování inovace a technického pokroku a sporné pochopení zisku a vykořisťování, což naznačuje příliš zjednodušený pohled na ekonomickou dynamiku. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8c287dbecd2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die Hauptkritik an Marx' Analyse? -answer: Alle oben genannten -wrong_answers: - - Marx berücksichtigt nicht die Rolle politischer Institutionen in der Geschichte - - Marx unterschätzt die Bedeutung von Innovation und technischem Fortschritt - - Marx hat eine fehlerhafte Sicht auf die Natur von Profit und Ausbeutung -explanation: | - Kritiker von Marx' Analyse heben mehrere Punkte hervor, wie seine Missachtung politischer Institutionen, seine Unterschätzung von Innovation und technischem Fortschritt sowie ein umstrittenes Verständnis von Profit und Ausbeutung, was auf eine übermäßig vereinfachte Sicht der wirtschaftlichen Dynamik hindeutet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/en.yml index ae0f2d8788f..a9ae6d2edc6 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the main criticism of Marx's analysis? -answer: All of the above +answer: Marx has a mistaken view of the nature of profit and exploitation wrong_answers: - Marx does not take into account the role of political institutions in history - Marx underestimates the importance of innovation and technical progress - - Marx has a mistaken view of the nature of profit and exploitation + - Marx overestimates the influence of religion on economic structures explanation: | - Critics of Marx's analysis highlight several points, including his disregard for political institutions, his underestimation of innovation and technical progress, and a contested understanding of profit and exploitation, which suggest an overly simplistic view of economic dynamics. + The main criticism of Marx's analysis is his misunderstanding of profit and exploitation. Profit compensates the entrepreneur for the risk taken, and in a competitive market, employment is based on voluntary agreement, not coercion. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d7cfd68f1e2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la principal crítica al análisis de Marx? -answer: Todas las anteriores -wrong_answers: - - Marx no toma en cuenta el papel de las instituciones políticas en la historia - - Marx subestima la importancia de la innovación y el progreso técnico - - Marx tiene una visión errónea de la naturaleza del beneficio y la explotación -explanation: | - Los críticos del análisis de Marx destacan varios puntos, como su desconsideración por las instituciones políticas, su subestimación de la innovación y el progreso técnico, y una comprensión controvertida del beneficio y la explotación, sugiriendo una visión demasiado simplista de las dinámicas económicas. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 210d2981196..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Marx'i analüüsi peamine kriitika? -answer: Kõik eelnev -wrong_answers: - - Marx ei arvesta poliitiliste institutsioonide rolli ajaloos - - Marx alahindab innovatsiooni ja tehnilise progressi tähtsust - - Marxil on ekslik arusaam kasumi ja ärakasutamise olemusest -explanation: | - Marx'i analüüsi kritiseerijad toovad esile mitmeid punkte, nagu tema tähelepanuta jätmine poliitilistele institutsioonidele, innovatsiooni ja tehnilise progressi alahindamine ning vaidlustatud arusaam kasumist ja ärakasutamisest, viidates liiga lihtsustatud vaatele majandusdünaamikale. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 38ebac87aad..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: انتقاد اصلی به تحلیل مارکس چیست؟ -answer: همه موارد فوق -wrong_answers: - - مارکس نقش نهادهای سیاسی در تاریخ را در نظر نمی‌گیرد. - - مارکس اهمیت نوآوری و پیشرفت فنی را دست‌کم می‌گیرد. - - مارکس دیدگاه اشتباهی نسبت به ماهیت سود و استثمار دارد. -explanation: | - منتقدان تحلیل مارکس به چندین نکته اشاره می‌کنند، مانند بی‌توجهی او به نهادهای سیاسی، کم‌اهمیت دانستن نوآوری و پیشرفت فنی، و درک مورد مناقشه از سود و استثمار، که نشان‌دهنده دیدگاهی بیش از حد ساده‌انگارانه از پویایی‌های اقتصادی است. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f7fa45ff2e0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Marxin analyysin päätavoitekritiikki? -answer: Kaikki yllä mainitut -wrong_answers: - - Marx ei ota huomioon poliittisten instituutioiden roolia historiassa - - Marx aliarvioi innovaation ja teknisen edistyksen merkitystä - - Marxilla on virheellinen käsitys voiton ja hyväksikäytön luonteesta -explanation: | - Marxin analyysin kriitikot korostavat useita seikkoja, kuten hänen välinpitämättömyyttään poliittisia instituutioita kohtaan, innovaation ja teknisen edistyksen aliarviointia, sekä kiisteltyä käsitystä voitosta ja hyväksikäytöstä, ehdottaen liian yksinkertaistettua näkemystä taloudellisista dynamiikoista. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fr.yml index 203a96c0738..dc36abe9897 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/fr.yml @@ -1,10 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la critique principale adressée à l'analyse de Marx ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses. +answer: Marx a une vision erronée de la nature du profit et de l'exploitation. wrong_answers: - Marx ne prend pas en compte le rôle des institutions politiques dans l'histoire. - Marx sous-estime l'importance de l'innovation et du progrès technique. - - Marx a une vision erronée de la nature du profit et de l'exploitation. + - Marx surestime l'influence de la religion sur les structures économiques. explanation: | - Les critiques de l'analyse de Marx soulignent plusieurs points, tels que son ignorance des institutions politiques, sa sous-estimation de l'innovation et du progrès technique, ainsi qu'une compréhension contestée du profit et de l'exploitation, - suggérant une vision trop simpliste des dynamiques économiques. -reviewed: true + La critique principale de l'analyse de Marx porte sur sa compréhension erronée du profit et de l'exploitation. Le profit compense l'entrepreneur pour le risque pris, et dans un marché concurrentiel, l'emploi repose sur un accord volontaire, non sur la coercition. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fce30642f79..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: मार्क्स के विश्लेषण की मुख्य आलोचना क्या है? -answer: ऊपर दिया गया सब कुछ -wrong_answers: - - मार्क्स इतिहास में राजनीतिक संस्थाओं की भूमिका पर ध्यान नहीं देता - - मार्क्स नवाचार और तकनीकी प्रगति के महत्व को कम आंकते हैं - - मार्क्स का मुनाफ़े और शोषण की प्रकृति के बारे में ग़लत नज़रिया है -explanation: | - मार्क्स के विश्लेषण के आलोचक कई बिंदुओं पर प्रकाश डालते हैं, जैसे कि राजनीतिक संस्थाओं को नज़रअंदाज़ करना, नवाचार और तकनीकी प्रगति को कम आंकना, और मुनाफ़े व शोषण की विवादास्पद समझ, जो आर्थिक गतिशीलता का बहुत ही सरलीकृत दृष्टिकोण सुझाती है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ab56a1d26c6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa kritik utama terhadap analisis Marx? -answer: Semua hal di atas -wrong_answers: - - Marx tidak memperhitungkan peran lembaga politik dalam sejarah - - Marx meremehkan pentingnya inovasi dan kemajuan teknis - - Marx memiliki pandangan yang salah tentang sifat keuntungan dan eksploitasi -explanation: | - Kritikus analisis Marx menyoroti beberapa poin, seperti pengabaian terhadap lembaga politik, pengurangan pentingnya inovasi dan kemajuan teknis, dan pemahaman yang dipertentangkan tentang keuntungan dan eksploitasi, menyarankan pandangan yang terlalu sederhana tentang dinamika ekonomi. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 65d4d5f8a83..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la principale critica all'analisi di Marx? -answer: Tutte le precedenti -wrong_answers: - - Marx non tiene conto del ruolo delle istituzioni politiche nella storia - - Marx sottovaluta l'importanza dell'innovazione e del progresso tecnico - - Marx ha una visione errata della natura del profitto e dello sfruttamento -explanation: | - I critici dell'analisi di Marx evidenziano diversi punti, tra cui il suo disinteresse per le istituzioni politiche, la sua sottovalutazione dell'innovazione e del progresso tecnico, e una comprensione del profitto e dello sfruttamento spesso contestata, suggerendo una visione eccessivamente semplificata delle dinamiche economiche. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 777c2372232..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: マルクスの分析の主な批判は何ですか？ -answer: 上記すべて -wrong_answers: - - マルクスは歴史における政治機関の役割を考慮していない - - マルクスは革新と技術進歩の重要性を過小評価している - - マルクスは利益と搾取の本質について誤った見解を持っている -explanation: | - マルクスの分析を批判する人々は、政治機関を無視している点、革新と技術進歩を過小評価している点、利益と搾取の理解が争われている点など、経済ダイナミクスの過度に単純化された視点を示唆している複数の点を指摘しています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 895d3633830..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 마르크스의 분석에 대한 주요 비판은 무엇인가요? -answer: 위의 모든 사항 -wrong_answers: - - 마르크스는 역사에서 정치 기관의 역할을 고려하지 않았습니다 - - 마르크스는 혁신과 기술 발전의 중요성을 과소평가했습니다 - - 마르크스는 이윤과 착취의 본질에 대해 잘못된 견해를 가지고 있습니다 -explanation: | - 마르크스의 분석에 대한 비판자들은 정치 제도에 대한 그의 무시, 혁신과 기술 진보에 대한 그의 과소평가, 이윤과 착취에 대한 논쟁적인 이해 등 경제 역학에 대한 지나치게 단순한 관점을 제시하는 몇 가지 점을 강조합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 02a7caab8df..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er den viktigste kritikken mot Marx' analyse? -answer: Alt ovenfor -wrong_answers: - - Marx tar ikke hensyn til politiske institusjoners rolle i historien - - Marx undervurderer betydningen av innovasjon og teknisk fremgang - - Marx har en feilaktig oppfatning av profittens og utbyttingens natur -explanation: | - Kritikere av Marx' analyse fremhever flere punkter, som hans ignorering av politiske institusjoner, hans undervurdering av innovasjon og teknisk fremgang, og en omstridt forståelse av profitt og utbytting, noe som antyder et altfor forenklet syn på økonomiske dynamikker. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 764752157cc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de belangrijkste kritiek op de analyse van Marx? -answer: Alle bovenstaande -wrong_answers: - - Marx houdt geen rekening met de rol van politieke instellingen in de geschiedenis - - Marx onderschat het belang van innovatie en technische vooruitgang - - Marx heeft een verkeerde kijk op de aard van winst en uitbuiting -explanation: | - Critici van Marx' analyse benadrukken verschillende punten, waaronder zijn veronachtzaming van politieke instellingen, zijn onderschatting van innovatie en technische vooruitgang, en een betwist begrip van winst en uitbuiting, die een te simplistische kijk op economische dynamiek suggereren. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 23415c761a3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaka jest główna krytyka analizy Marksa? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe -wrong_answers: - - Marks nie bierze pod uwagę roli instytucji politycznych w historii - - Marks nie docenia znaczenia innowacji i postępu technicznego - - Marks ma błędny pogląd na naturę zysku i wyzysku -explanation: | - Krytycy analizy Marksa podkreślają kilka kwestii, takich jak jego lekceważenie instytucji politycznych, niedocenianie innowacji i postępu technicznego oraz kwestionowane rozumienie zysku i wyzysku, co sugeruje zbyt uproszczony pogląd na dynamikę gospodarczą. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c3810bb6789..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a principal crítica à análise de Marx? -answer: Todas as opções acima -wrong_answers: - - Marx não leva em conta o papel das instituições políticas na história - - Marx subestima a importância da inovação e do progresso técnico - - Marx tem uma visão equivocada da natureza do lucro e da exploração -explanation: | - Críticos da análise de Marx destacam vários pontos, como seu desconsiderar pelas instituições políticas, sua subestimação da inovação e do progresso técnico, e uma compreensão contestada do lucro e da exploração, sugerindo uma visão excessivamente simplista das dinâmicas econômicas. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2b59122ec70..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki nyamukuru umuntu anegura mu bijanye n’isesengura rya Marx? -answer: Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -wrong_answers: - - Marx ntiyitaho uruhara rw'inzego za politike muri kahise . - - Marx asuzugura akamaro k'ubuhinga bushasha n'iterambere ry'ubuhinga . - - Marx afise iciyumviro kitari co ku bijanye n’ingene inyungu n’ugukoresha nabi . -explanation: | - Abanegura isesengura rya Marx barashira ahabona ingingo zitari nke, harimwo ukuntu asuzugura inzego za politike, ukuntu asuzugura ubuhinga bushasha n’iterambere ry’ubuhinga, n’ukuntu atahura inyungu n’ugukoresha nabi ibintu bitari vyo, ivyo bikaba bigaragaza ko umuntu abona ibintu mu buryo bworoshe cane ku bijanye n’ingene ubutunzi bugenda. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e544f017559..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какова основная критика анализа Маркса? -answer: Все вышеперечисленное -wrong_answers: - - Маркс не учитывает роль политических институтов в истории - - Маркс недооценивает значение инноваций и технического прогресса - - У Маркса ошибочное представление о природе прибыли и эксплуатации -explanation: | - Критики анализа Маркса выделяют несколько моментов, таких как его игнорирование политических институтов, недооценка инноваций и технического прогресса, а также спорное понимание прибыли и эксплуатации, что предполагает чрезмерно упрощенный взгляд на экономическую динамику. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 132766b0b06..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je glavna kritika Marksove analize? -answer: Sve navedeno -wrong_answers: - - Marks ne uzima u obzir ulogu političkih institucija u istoriji - - Marks potcenjuje značaj inovacija i tehničkog napretka - - Marks ima pogrešan pogled na prirodu profita i eksploatacije -explanation: | - Kritičari Marksove analize ističu nekoliko tačaka, kao što su njegovo zanemarivanje političkih institucija, potcenjivanje inovacija i tehničkog napretka, i osporavano razumevanje profita i eksploatacije, sugerišući previše pojednostavljen pogled na ekonomske dinamike. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 59f62eb460f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken är den huvudsakliga kritiken mot Marx analys? -answer: Alla ovanstående -wrong_answers: - - Marx tar inte hänsyn till de politiska institutionernas roll i historien - - Marx underskattar betydelsen av innovation och tekniska framsteg - - Marx har en felaktig syn på profitens och exploateringens natur -explanation: | - Kritiker av Marx analys lyfter fram flera punkter, bland annat att han bortser från politiska institutioner, underskattar innovation och tekniska framsteg samt har en omtvistad syn på vinst och exploatering, vilket tyder på en alltför förenklad syn på ekonomisk dynamik. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 230c4bb932a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni upi ukosoaji mkuu wa uchambuzi wa Marx? -answer: Yote ya hapo juu -wrong_answers: - - Marx haizingatii jukumu la taasisi za kisiasa katika historia - - Marx anakadiria umuhimu wa uvumbuzi na maendeleo ya kiufundi - - Marx ana mtazamo potofu wa asili ya faida na unyonyaji -explanation: | - Wakosoaji wa uchambuzi wa Marx wanaangazia mambo kadhaa, kama vile kutozingatia kwake taasisi za kisiasa, kutothamini kwake uvumbuzi na maendeleo ya kiufundi, na uelewa unaopingana wa faida na unyonyaji, na kupendekeza mtazamo rahisi zaidi wa mienendo ya kiuchumi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 17165c1a64f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: คำวิจารณ์หลักของการวิเคราะห์ของมาร์กซ์คืออะไร? -answer: ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -wrong_answers: - - มาร์กซ์ไม่ได้คำนึงถึงบทบาทของสถาบันทางการเมืองในประวัติศาสตร์ - - มาร์กซ์ประเมินความสำคัญของนวัตกรรมและความก้าวหน้าทางเทคนิคต่ำเกินไป - - มาร์กซ์มีมุมมองที่ผิดเกี่ยวกับธรรมชาติของกำไรและการเอารัดเอาเปรียบ -explanation: | - นักวิจารณ์การวิเคราะห์ของมาร์กซ์ชี้ให้เห็นหลายประเด็น รวมถึงการที่เขามองข้ามสถาบันทางการเมือง การประเมินค่าต่ำเกินไปของนวัตกรรมและความก้าวหน้าทางเทคนิค และความเข้าใจที่เป็นที่ถกเถียงเกี่ยวกับกำไรและการแสวงหาประโยชน์ ซึ่งบ่งบอกถึงมุมมองที่ง่ายเกินไปของพลวัตทางเศรษฐกิจ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 204ef1b27e2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Marx'ın analizine yönelik temel eleştiri nedir? -answer: Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -wrong_answers: - - Marx siyasi kurumların tarihteki rolünü dikkate almaz - - Marx inovasyon ve teknik ilerlemenin önemini küçümsemektedir - - Marx'ın kâr ve sömürünün doğasına ilişkin yanlış bir görüşü vardır -explanation: | - Marx'ın analizini eleştirenler, siyasi kurumları göz ardı etmesi, inovasyon ve teknik ilerlemeyi hafife alması ve ekonomik dinamiklere aşırı basit bir bakış açısı öneren tartışmalı bir kâr ve sömürü anlayışı da dahil olmak üzere birkaç noktayı vurgulamaktadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0754f0a9d18..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Phê bình chính đối với phân tích của Marx là gì? -answer: Tất cả những điều trên -wrong_answers: - - Marx không tính đến vai trò của các tổ chức chính trị trong lịch sử - - Marx đánh giá thấp tầm quan trọng của đổi mới và tiến bộ kỹ thuật - - Marx có quan điểm sai lầm về bản chất của lợi nhuận và bóc lột -explanation: | - Những người phê bình phân tích của Marx chỉ ra một số điểm, như việc ông bỏ qua các tổ chức chính trị, đánh giá thấp đổi mới và tiến bộ kỹ thuật, và có một quan điểm tranh cãi về lợi nhuận và bóc lột, gợi ý một cái nhìn quá đơn giản về động lực kinh tế. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ee5a28939b6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 马克思分析的主要批评是什么？ -answer: 所有上述内容 -wrong_answers: - - 马克思没有考虑到政治机构在历史中的作用 - - 马克思低估了创新和技术进步的重要性 - - 马克思对利润和剥削性质的看法有误 -explanation: | - 批评马克思分析的人士指出了几个问题，例如他忽视了政治机构、低估了创新和技术进步的重要性，以及对利润和剥削的理解存在争议，这表明他对经济动态的看法过于简化。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9e10b89bbac..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/017/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 對馬克思分析的主要批判是什麼？ -answer: 以上皆是 -wrong_answers: - - 馬克思沒有考慮到政治體制在歷史中的作用 - - 馬克思低估了創新和技術進步的重要性 - - 馬克思對於利潤和剝削的本質有錯誤的看法 -explanation: | - 對於馬克思的分析，批評者強調了幾點，例如他對政治體制的漠視、對創新和技術進步的低估，以及對利潤和剝削的理解存在爭議，顯示他對經濟動力的看法過於簡單化。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5cb4c7245b5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Как индустриализацията се отразява на условията на живот на работниците? -answer: Тя има различни ефекти в зависимост от регионите и секторите на дейност -wrong_answers: - - Това доведе до общо влошаване на условията им на живот - - Създава нови възможности и подобрява стандарта им на живот - - Въздействието на индустриализацията върху работниците е твърде сложно, за да бъде оценено -explanation: | - Индустриализацията оказва различно въздействие върху условията на живот на работниците, като последиците се различават в зависимост от региона и сектора; някои от работниците се чувстват по-добре, докато други са изправени пред трудни условия на труд. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 20e1a845b54..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jak průmyslová revoluce ovlivnila životní podmínky pracovníků? -answer: Měla různé dopady v závislosti na regionech a odvětvích činnosti -wrong_answers: - - Vedla k obecnému zhoršení jejich životních podmínek - - Vytvořila nové příležitosti a zlepšila jejich životní standard - - Dopad průmyslové revoluce na pracovníky je příliš složitý na to, aby byl posouzen -explanation: | - Průmyslová revoluce měla různorodé dopady na životní podmínky pracovníků, přičemž účinky se lišily podle regionu a odvětví, někteří pracovníci zažívali zlepšení, zatímco jiní čelili obtížným pracovním podmínkám. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e076f689808..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13 +0,0 @@ -question: Wie beeinflusste die Industrialisierung die Lebensbedingungen der Arbeiter? - -answer: Sie hatte unterschiedliche Auswirkungen, abhängig von den Regionen und den Sektoren der Tätigkeit. - -wrong_answers: - - Sie führte zu einer allgemeinen Verschlechterung ihrer Lebensbedingungen. - - Sie schuf neue Möglichkeiten und verbesserte ihren Lebensstandard. - - Die Auswirkungen der Industrialisierung auf die Arbeiter sind zu komplex, um beurteilt zu werden. - -explanation: | - Die Industrialisierung hatte unterschiedliche Auswirkungen auf die Lebensbedingungen der Arbeiter, wobei die Effekte je nach Region und Sektor variierten. Einige Arbeiter erlebten Verbesserungen, während andere unter schwierigen Arbeitsbedingungen litten. - -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/en.yml index aa69cc556b0..1da966e7a7d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: How did industrialization affect the living conditions of workers? -answer: It had different effects depending on the regions and sectors of activity +answer: It created new opportunities and improved their standard of living wrong_answers: - It led to a general deterioration of their living conditions - - It created new opportunities and improved their standard of living + - It had different effects depending on the regions and sectors of activity - The impact of industrialization on workers is too complex to be judged explanation: | - Industrialization had varied impacts on the living conditions of workers, with effects differing by region and sector; some workers experienced improvements, while others faced difficult working conditions. + According to Mises and Hayek (Capitalism and the Historians), industrialization created new opportunities and raised living standards: factory jobs, though miserable by our standards, were the best available option and lifted the surplus population out of pre-industrial poverty. The Marxist "dark legend" of a general deterioration is contradicted by the historical record. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ac628fc350f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cómo afectó la industrialización las condiciones de vida de los trabajadores? -answer: Tuvo diferentes efectos dependiendo de las regiones y sectores de actividad -wrong_answers: - - Llevó a un deterioro general de sus condiciones de vida - - Creó nuevas oportunidades y mejoró su nivel de vida - - El impacto de la industrialización en los trabajadores es demasiado complejo para ser juzgado -explanation: | - La industrialización tuvo impactos variados en las condiciones de vida de los trabajadores, con efectos que diferían por región y sector, algunos trabajadores experimentaron mejoras, mientras que otros enfrentaron condiciones de trabajo difíciles. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f1d71a6709a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuidas mõjutas industrialiseerimine töötajate elutingimusi? -answer: Selle mõjud olid erinevad sõltuvalt piirkondadest ja tegevusvaldkondadest -wrong_answers: - - See viis nende elutingimuste üldise halvenemiseni - - See lõi uusi võimalusi ja parandas nende elustandardit - - Industrialiseerimise mõju töötajatele on liiga keeruline, et seda hinnata -explanation: | - Industrialiseerimisel oli töötajate elutingimustele mitmekesine mõju, mõjud erinesid piirkonniti ja sektoriti, mõned töötajad kogesid paranemist, samas kui teised seisid silmitsi raskete töötingimustega. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 662465bef56..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: صنعتی شدن چگونه بر شرایط زندگی کارگران تأثیر گذاشت؟ -answer: این تأثیرات متفاوتی داشت بسته به مناطق و بخش‌های فعالیت -wrong_answers: - - این امر منجر به وخامت کلی شرایط زندگی آن‌ها شد - - این فرصت‌های جدیدی ایجاد کرد و استاندارد زندگی آن‌ها را بهبود بخشید. - - تأثیر صنعتی‌سازی بر کارگران بیش از حد پیچیده است که بتوان آن را قضاوت کرد -explanation: | - صنعتی‌سازی تأثیرات متنوعی بر شرایط زندگی کارگران داشت، به‌طوری‌که اثرات آن بسته به منطقه و بخش متفاوت بود؛ برخی کارگران بهبودهایی را تجربه کردند، در حالی که دیگران با شرایط کاری دشوار مواجه شدند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b62b93b7f32..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Miten teollistuminen vaikutti työntekijöiden elinolosuhteisiin? -answer: Sen vaikutukset vaihtelivat alueittain ja toimialoittain -wrong_answers: - - Se johti heidän elinolosuhteidensa yleiseen heikkenemiseen - - Se loi uusia mahdollisuuksia ja paransi heidän elintasoaan - - Teollistumisen vaikutus työntekijöihin on liian monimutkainen arvioitavaksi -explanation: | - Teollistumisella oli vaihtelevia vaikutuksia työntekijöiden elinolosuhteisiin, vaikutukset eri alueilla ja toimialoilla vaihdellen, jotkut työntekijät kokivat parannuksia, kun taas toiset kohtasivat vaikeita työolosuhteita. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fr.yml index 5aa6ca4908c..fd310bfff50 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Comment l'industrialisation a-t-elle affecté les conditions de vie des travailleurs ? -answer: Elle a eu des effets différents selon les régions et les secteurs d'activité. +answer: Elle a créé de nouvelles opportunités et amélioré leur niveau de vie. wrong_answers: - Elle a entraîné une dégradation générale de leurs conditions de vie. - - Elle a créé de nouvelles opportunités et amélioré leur niveau de vie. + - Elle a eu des effets différents selon les régions et les secteurs d'activité. - L'impact de l'industrialisation sur les travailleurs est trop complexe pour être jugé. explanation: | - L'industrialisation a eu des impacts variés sur les conditions de vie des travailleurs, avec des effets qui différaient selon les régions et les secteurs, certains travailleurs ayant bénéficié d'améliorations, tandis que d'autres ont subi des conditions de travail difficiles. -reviewed: true + Selon Mises et Hayek (Capitalisme et historiens), l'industrialisation a créé de nouvelles opportunités et élevé le niveau de vie : les emplois en usine, bien que misérables selon nos critères, représentaient la meilleure option disponible et ont sorti la population excédentaire de la pauvreté préindustrielle. La "légende noire" marxiste d'une dégradation générale est contredite par les faits historiques. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f894312e5dd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: औद्योगीकरण ने मजदूरों के रहन-सहन पर क्या असर डाला? -answer: इसका असर अलग-अलग इलाकों और काम के क्षेत्रों पर अलग-अलग तरीके से हुआ। -wrong_answers: - - इससे उनकी रहने की हालत आम तौर पर खराब हो गई - - इसने नए अवसर पैदा किए और उनकी जीवन स्तर को सुधार दिया - - औद्योगीकरण का मजदूरों पर असर इतना पेचीदा है कि उसका आसानी से फैसला नहीं किया जा सकता -explanation: | - औद्योगीकरण का मजदूरों की जिंदगी पर अलग-अलग असर पड़ा, जगह और काम के हिसाब से फर्क था। कुछ मजदूरों की हालत सुधरी, तो वहीं दूसरों को मुश्किल कामकाजी हालात का सामना करना पड़ा। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8b371f1306e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Bagaimana industrialisasi mempengaruhi kondisi hidup pekerja? -answer: Ini memiliki efek yang berbeda tergantung pada wilayah dan sektor kegiatan -wrong_answers: - - Ini menyebabkan penurunan umum kondisi hidup mereka - - Ini menciptakan peluang baru dan meningkatkan standar hidup mereka - - Dampak industrialisasi terhadap pekerja terlalu kompleks untuk dihakimi -explanation: | - Industrialisasi memiliki dampak yang bervariasi terhadap kondisi hidup pekerja, dengan efek yang berbeda-beda berdasarkan wilayah dan sektor, beberapa pekerja mengalami peningkatan, sementara yang lain menghadapi kondisi kerja yang sulit. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 32d12cc65e7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: In che modo l'industrializzazione ha influenzato le condizioni di vita dei lavoratori? -answer: Ha avuto effetti diversi a seconda delle regioni e dei settori -wrong_answers: - - Ha portato a un deterioramento generale delle loro condizioni di vita - - Ha creato nuove opportunità e migliorato il loro tenore di vita - - L'impatto dell'industrializzazione sui lavoratori è troppo complesso per essere giudicato -explanation: | - L'industrializzazione ha avuto impatti vari sulle condizioni di vita dei lavoratori, con effetti che differivano a seconda della regione e del settore. Alcuni lavoratori hanno sperimentato miglioramenti, mentre altri hanno affrontato condizioni di lavoro difficili. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2c89740cb40..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 産業化は労働者の生活条件にどのような影響を与えましたか？ -answer: 地域や活動分野によって異なる影響がありました -wrong_answers: - - 一般的に彼らの生活条件を悪化させた - - 新しい機会を生み出し、彼らの生活水準を向上させた - - 産業化が労働者に与えた影響は判断するには複雑すぎる -explanation: | - 産業化は労働者の生活条件に様々な影響を与え、地域や分野によって効果は異なり、一部の労働者は生活環境の改善を経験した一方で、他の労働者は困難な労働条件に直面しました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 40b5aac72e8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 산업화는 근로자의 생활 환경에 어떤 영향을 미쳤나요? -answer: 지역과 활동 분야에 따라 다른 영향을 미쳤습니다 -wrong_answers: - - 이로 인해 생활 환경이 전반적으로 악화되었습니다 - - 새로운 기회를 창출하고 생활 수준을 향상시켰습니다 - - 산업화가 근로자에게 미치는 영향은 판단하기에는 너무 복잡합니다 -explanation: | - 산업화는 근로자의 생활 조건에 다양한 영향을 미쳤으며, 지역과 업종에 따라 그 영향이 달라 일부 근로자는 개선된 근무 환경을 경험한 반면 다른 근로자는 어려운 근무 조건에 직면했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 43e900e6175..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvordan påvirket industrialiseringen levekårene til arbeidere? -answer: Den hadde ulike effekter avhengig av regionene og aktivitetssektorene -wrong_answers: - - Den førte til en generell forverring av deres levekår - - Den skapte nye muligheter og forbedret deres levestandard - - Påvirkningen av industrialiseringen på arbeidere er for kompleks til å bedømmes -explanation: | - Industrialiseringen hadde varierte innvirkninger på arbeidernes levekår, med effekter som varierte etter region og sektor, noen arbeidere opplevde forbedringer, mens andre sto overfor vanskelige arbeidsforhold. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 64fe4008c50..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hoe beïnvloedde de industrialisatie de levensomstandigheden van arbeiders? -answer: Het had verschillende effecten, afhankelijk van de regio's en sectoren van activiteit -wrong_answers: - - Het leidde tot een algemene verslechtering van hun levensomstandigheden - - Het creëerde nieuwe kansen en verbeterde hun levensstandaard - - De impact van industrialisatie op werknemers is te complex om te beoordelen -explanation: | - De industrialisatie had uiteenlopende gevolgen voor de levensomstandigheden van arbeiders, waarbij de effecten verschilden per regio en sector; sommige arbeiders ondervonden verbeteringen, terwijl anderen te maken kregen met moeilijke arbeidsomstandigheden. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 87d4ebf73de..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jak industrializacja wpłynęła na warunki życia robotników? -answer: Miało to różne skutki w zależności od regionów i sektorów działalności -wrong_answers: - - Doprowadziło to do ogólnego pogorszenia ich warunków życia - - Stworzyło to nowe możliwości i poprawiło standard ich życia - - Wpływ industrializacji na pracowników jest zbyt złożony, by można go było ocenić -explanation: | - Uprzemysłowienie miało zróżnicowany wpływ na warunki życia pracowników, przy czym skutki różniły się w zależności od regionu i sektora, niektórzy pracownicy doświadczyli poprawy, podczas gdy inni mieli do czynienia z trudnymi warunkami pracy. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 086006881bc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Como a industrialização afetou as condições de vida dos trabalhadores? -answer: Teve efeitos diferentes dependendo das regiões e setores de atividade -wrong_answers: - - Levou a uma deterioração geral de suas condições de vida - - Criou novas oportunidades e melhorou seu padrão de vida - - O impacto da industrialização sobre os trabalhadores é complexo demais para ser julgado -explanation: | - A industrialização teve impactos variados nas condições de vida dos trabalhadores, com efeitos diferenciados por região e setor, alguns trabalhadores experimentando melhorias, enquanto outros enfrentavam condições de trabalho difíceis. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c057a0a0775..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni gute ugutera imbere kw’inganda kwagize ico gukoze ku buzima bw’abakozi? -answer: Yari afise ingaruka zitandukanye bivanye n'uturere n'imice y'ibikorwa . -wrong_answers: - - Vyatumye ubuzima bwabo bugenda burahungabana muri rusangi . - - Vyatumye baronka uturyo dushasha kandi bituma ubuzima bwabo butera imbere . - - Ingaruka z'inganda ku bakozi ni nyinshi cane ku buryo zidashobora gucirwa urubanza . -explanation: | - Inganda zari zifise ingaruka zitandukanye ku mibereho y’abakozi, ingaruka zikaba zitandukanye hakurikijwe akarere n’urwego; abakozi bamwebamwe bararonse iterambere, abandi na bo barashikiwe n’ibintu bigoye ku kazi. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5f611e4b373..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Как индустриализация повлияла на условия жизни рабочих? -answer: Она оказала различное воздействие в зависимости от регионов и секторов деятельности -wrong_answers: - - Это привело к общему ухудшению их условий жизни - - Это создало новые возможности и улучшило их уровень жизни - - Влияние индустриализации на рабочих слишком сложно для оценки -explanation: | - Индустриализация оказала разнообразное воздействие на условия жизни рабочих, эффекты отличались в зависимости от региона и сектора, некоторые рабочие испытывали улучшения, в то время как другие сталкивались с трудными условиями труда. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9ef7f065875..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kako je industrijalizacija uticala na životne uslove radnika? -answer: Imalo je različite efekte u zavisnosti od regiona i sektora aktivnosti. -wrong_answers: - - To je dovelo do opšteg pogoršanja njihovih životnih uslova. - - Stvorilo je nove prilike i poboljšalo njihov životni standard. - - Uticaj industrijalizacije na radnike je previše složen da bi se mogao oceniti -explanation: | - Industrijalizacija je imala različite uticaje na životne uslove radnika, s efektima koji su se razlikovali po regionima i sektorima, pri čemu su neki radnici doživeli poboljšanja, dok su se drugi suočavali sa teškim radnim uslovima. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8cd7e67e7e3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hur påverkade industrialiseringen arbetarnas levnadsvillkor? -answer: Den hade olika effekter beroende på regioner och verksamhetssektorer -wrong_answers: - - Det ledde till en allmän försämring av deras levnadsvillkor - - Det skapade nya möjligheter och förbättrade deras levnadsstandard - - Industrialiseringens inverkan på arbetstagarna är alltför komplex för att kunna bedömas -explanation: | - Industrialiseringen hade varierande inverkan på arbetarnas levnadsvillkor, och effekterna skilde sig åt mellan olika regioner och sektorer; vissa arbetare upplevde förbättringar, medan andra hade svåra arbetsförhållanden. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0b3172a7a5c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ukuaji wa viwanda uliathiri vipi hali ya maisha ya wafanyikazi? -answer: Ilikuwa na athari tofauti kulingana na mikoa na sekta za shughuli -wrong_answers: - - Ilisababisha kuzorota kwa ujumla kwa hali yao ya maisha - - Iliunda fursa mpya na kuboresha kiwango chao cha maisha - - Athari za ukuaji wa viwanda kwa wafanyikazi ni ngumu sana kuhukumiwa -explanation: | - Ukuaji wa viwanda ulikuwa na athari tofauti kwa hali ya maisha ya wafanyikazi, na athari zikitofautiana kwa mkoa na sekta, wafanyikazi wengine wakipitia maboresho, huku wengine wakikabiliwa na mazingira magumu ya kazi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9fa5ef647fa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: อุตสาหกรรมส่งผลต่อสภาพความเป็นอยู่ของคนงานอย่างไร? -answer: มันมีผลกระทบที่แตกต่างกันขึ้นอยู่กับภูมิภาคและภาคส่วนของกิจกรรม -wrong_answers: - - มันนำไปสู่การเสื่อมสภาพโดยทั่วไปของสภาพความเป็นอยู่ของพวกเขา - - มันสร้างโอกาสใหม่ๆ และปรับปรุงมาตรฐานการครองชีพของพวกเขา - - ผลกระทบของการปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรมต่อคนงานนั้นซับซ้อนเกินกว่าจะตัดสินได้ -explanation: | - การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรมมีผลกระทบที่หลากหลายต่อสภาพความเป็นอยู่ของคนงาน โดยผลกระทบแตกต่างกันไปตามภูมิภาคและภาคส่วน; คนงานบางส่วนได้รับการปรับปรุงสภาพความเป็นอยู่ ในขณะที่คนงานบางส่วนต้องเผชิญกับสภาพการทำงานที่ยากลำบาก -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 216c1aa553b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Sanayileşme işçilerin yaşam koşullarını nasıl etkiledi? -answer: Bölgelere ve faaliyet gösterilen sektörlere göre farklı etkileri olmuştur -wrong_answers: - - Yaşam koşullarında genel bir kötüleşmeye yol açtı - - Yeni fırsatlar yarattı ve yaşam standartlarını iyileştirdi - - Sanayileşmenin işçiler üzerindeki etkisi değerlendirilemeyecek kadar karmaşıktır -explanation: | - Sanayileşmenin işçilerin yaşam koşulları üzerinde çeşitli etkileri olmuş, bu etkiler bölgelere ve sektörlere göre farklılık göstermiştir; bazı işçiler iyileşmeler yaşarken, diğerleri zor çalışma koşullarıyla karşı karşıya kalmıştır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 357fc13f6f1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Công nghiệp hóa đã ảnh hưởng như thế nào đến điều kiện sống của người lao động? -answer: Nó có những ảnh hưởng khác nhau tùy thuộc vào các khu vực và ngành nghề -wrong_answers: - - Nó dẫn đến sự suy giảm chung về điều kiện sống của họ - - Nó tạo ra cơ hội mới và cải thiện tiêu chuẩn sống của họ - - Ảnh hưởng của công nghiệp hóa đối với người lao động quá phức tạp để có thể đánh giá -explanation: | - Công nghiệp hóa có những tác động đa dạng đến điều kiện sống của người lao động, với những ảnh hưởng khác nhau tùy thuộc vào khu vực và ngành, một số người lao động trải qua sự cải thiện, trong khi những người khác phải đối mặt với điều kiện làm việc khó khăn. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0f38620325d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 工业化如何影响工人的生活条件？ -answer: 它根据地区和活动领域的不同而有不同的影响 -wrong_answers: - - 它导致了他们生活条件的普遍恶化 - - 它创造了新的机会并提高了他们的生活标准 - - 工业化对工人的影响过于复杂，无法判断 -explanation: | - 工业化对工人生活条件的影响各不相同，效果因地区和部门而异，一些工人的生活条件得到了改善，而其他人则面临艰难的工作条件。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6cfc7c63224..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/018/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 工業化如何影響工人的生活條件？ -answer: 根據地區和活動部門的不同，其影響也不同 -wrong_answers: - - 這導致他們的生活條件普遍惡化 - - 它創造了新的機會並改善了他們的生活水準 - - 工業化對工人的影響太複雜，難以判斷 -explanation: | - 工業化對工人的生活條件有不同的影響，影響因地區和部門而異，有些工人的生活條件有所改善，有些工人則面臨困難的工作條件。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dd36f13cfbd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Защо Ротбард смята, че писаните конституции не са достатъчни, за да ограничат властта на държавата? -answer: Всичко изброено по-горе -wrong_answers: - - Те могат лесно да бъдат променяни от управляващите - - Те могат да се тълкуват - - Те не могат да предотвратят злоупотребите с власт от страна на бюрократи и длъжностни лица -explanation: | - Ротбард смята, че писаните конституции не са достатъчни за ограничаване на държавната власт, тъй като подлежат на тълкуване, могат да бъдат променяни от управляващите и не защитават ефективно от злоупотреби от страна на бюрократите. - прегледано: вярно \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 671c0ba19b3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Proč Rothbard věří, že psané ústavy nejsou dostatečné k omezení moci státu? -answer: Vše výše uvedené -wrong_answers: - - Mohou být snadno změněny těmi, kdo mají moc - - Mohou být interpretovány - - Nedokážou zabránit zneužívání moci úředníky a úředníky -explanation: | - Rothbard věří, že psané ústavy nejsou dostatečné k omezení moci státu, protože jsou předmětem interpretace, mohou být změněny těmi, kdo drží moc, a nechrání účinně proti zneužívání ze strany úředníků. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0b3c96038e8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Warum glaubt Rothbard, dass schriftliche Verfassungen nicht ausreichen, um die Macht des Staates zu begrenzen? -answer: All das oben Genannte -wrong_answers: - - Sie können leicht von den Machthabern geändert werden - - Sie können interpretiert werden - - Sie können Missbräuche der Macht durch Bürokraten und Beamte nicht verhindern -explanation: | - Rothbard ist der Ansicht, dass schriftliche Verfassungen nicht ausreichen, um die Macht des Staates zu begrenzen, da sie der Interpretation unterliegen, von den Machthabern geändert werden können und nicht effektiv vor Missbräuchen durch Bürokraten schützen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/en.yml index c1da43f02b9..7a5cb245284 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Why does Rothbard believe that written constitutions are not enough to limit the power of the state? -answer: All of the above +answer: They can be interpreted broadly by those in power to expand state authority wrong_answers: - They can be easily amended by those in power - - They can be interpreted + - They are too old to be relevant in modern democratic societies - They cannot prevent abuses of power by bureaucrats and officials explanation: | - Rothbard believes that written constitutions are insufficient to limit the power of the state because they are subject to interpretation, can be amended by those in power, and do not effectively protect against abuses by bureaucrats. - reviewed: true + Rothbard argues that constitutions are insufficient because the majority party can adopt extensive interpretations to increase its power. Without concrete enforcement mechanisms, constitutions become ineffective tools against the expansion of state authority. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 291097b7516..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Por qué Rothbard cree que las constituciones escritas no son suficientes para limitar el poder del estado? -answer: Todas las anteriores -wrong_answers: - - Pueden ser fácilmente modificadas por aquellos en el poder - - Pueden ser interpretadas - - No pueden prevenir abusos de poder por parte de burócratas y oficiales -explanation: | - Rothbard cree que las constituciones escritas no son suficientes para limitar el poder del estado porque están sujetas a interpretación, pueden ser modificadas por quienes detentan el poder y no protegen efectivamente contra los abusos por parte de los burócratas. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b108ff15496..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Miks usub Rothbard, et kirjalikud põhiseadused ei piira riigi võimu piisavalt? -answer: Kõik eelnevad -wrong_answers: - - Neid on võimulolijate poolt lihtne muuta - - Neid saab tõlgendada - - Need ei suuda ära hoida võimu kuritarvitamist bürokraatide ja ametnike poolt -explanation: | - Rothbard usub, et kirjalikud põhiseadused ei ole piisavad riigi võimu piiramiseks, kuna neid saab tõlgendada, võimulolijad saavad neid muuta ja need ei kaitse efektiivselt bürokraatide kuritarvituste eest. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 80d4c7eba57..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: چرا روتبارد معتقد است که قانون اساسی مکتوب برای محدود کردن قدرت دولت کافی نیست؟ -answer: همه موارد فوق -wrong_answers: - - آنها به راحتی توسط افراد در قدرت اصلاح می‌شوند. - - آنها می‌توانند تفسیر شوند - - آنها نمی‌توانند از سوءاستفاده‌های قدرت توسط بوروکرات‌ها و مقامات جلوگیری کنند. -explanation: | - راتبارد معتقد است که قانون‌های اساسی نوشته شده برای محدود کردن قدرت دولت کافی نیستند زیرا آن‌ها قابل تفسیر هستند، می‌توانند توسط کسانی که قدرت را در دست دارند اصلاح شوند و به طور مؤثری از سوءاستفاده‌های بوروکرات‌ها محافظت نمی‌کنند. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f3d81a6ac73..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Miksi Rothbard uskoo, että kirjalliset perustuslait eivät riitä valtion vallan rajoittamiseen? -answer: Kaikki edellä mainitut -wrong_answers: - - Ne voidaan helposti muuttaa vallassa olevien toimesta - - Niitä voidaan tulkita - - Ne eivät voi estää virkamiesten ja toimihenkilöiden väärinkäytöksiä -explanation: | - Rothbard uskoo, että kirjalliset perustuslait eivät ole riittäviä valtion vallan rajoittamiseen, koska ne ovat tulkinnanvaraisia, vallassa olevat voivat muuttaa niitä, ja ne eivät tehokkaasti suojaa virkamiesten väärinkäytöksiltä. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fr.yml index 7bd9d5c90ae..750c33ef50d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Pourquoi Rothbard considère-t-il que les constitutions écrites ne suffisent pas à limiter le pouvoir de l'État ? -answer: Toutes les réponses ci-dessus. +answer: Elles peuvent être interprétées de manière extensive par ceux au pouvoir pour étendre l'autorité de l'État. wrong_answers: - Elles peuvent être facilement modifiées par les pouvoirs en place. - - On peut les interpréter. + - Elles sont trop anciennes pour être pertinentes dans les sociétés démocratiques modernes. - Elles ne peuvent pas empêcher les abus de pouvoir par les bureaucrates et les fonctionnaires. explanation: | - Rothbard estime que les constitutions écrites ne suffisent pas à limiter le pouvoir de l'État, car elles sont sujettes à interprétation, peuvent être modifiées par ceux qui détiennent le pouvoir, et ne protègent pas efficacement contre les abus des bureaucrates. -reviewed: true + Rothbard soutient que les constitutions sont insuffisantes car le parti majoritaire peut adopter des interprétations extensives pour accroître son pouvoir. Sans mécanismes concrets d'application, les constitutions deviennent des outils inefficaces contre l'expansion de l'autorité de l'État. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6d9894b59a4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: रोथबार्ड का यह मानना ​​क्यों है कि लिखित संविधान राज्य की शक्ति को सीमित करने के लिए पर्याप्त नहीं हैं? -answer: ऊपर के सभी -wrong_answers: - - सत्ता में बैठे लोगों द्वारा इन्हें आसानी से संशोधित किया जा सकता है - - इनकी व्याख्या की जा सकती है - - वे नौकरशाहों और अधिकारियों द्वारा सत्ता के दुरुपयोग को रोक नहीं सकते -explanation: | - रोथबार्ड का मानना ​​है कि लिखित संविधान राज्य की शक्ति को सीमित करने के लिए पर्याप्त नहीं हैं, क्योंकि वे व्याख्या के अधीन हैं, उनमें सत्ताधारियों द्वारा संशोधन किया जा सकता है, तथा वे नौकरशाहों द्वारा दुर्व्यवहार के विरुद्ध प्रभावी रूप से सुरक्षा नहीं देते हैं। \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fb6c97377ec..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mengapa Rothbard percaya bahwa konstitusi tertulis saja tidak cukup untuk membatasi kekuasaan negara? -answer: Semua hal di atas -wrong_answers: - - Dapat dengan mudah diubah oleh mereka yang berkuasa - - Dapat ditafsirkan - - Tidak dapat mencegah penyalahgunaan kekuasaan oleh birokrat dan pejabat -explanation: | - Rothbard percaya bahwa konstitusi tertulis tidak cukup untuk membatasi kekuasaan negara karena dapat ditafsirkan, dapat diubah oleh mereka yang memegang kekuasaan, dan tidak efektif melindungi terhadap penyalahgunaan oleh birokrat. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 75e926a565f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Perché Rothbard ritiene che le costituzioni scritte non siano sufficienti a limitare il potere dello Stato? -answer: Tutte le risposte sopra indicate -wrong_answers: - - Possono essere facilmente modificate da chi detiene il potere - - Possono essere interpretate - - Non possono prevenire abusi di potere da parte di burocrati e funzionari -explanation: | - Rothbard ritiene che le costituzioni scritte non siano sufficienti a limitare il potere dello Stato perché sono soggette a interpretazione, possono essere modificate da chi detiene il potere e non proteggono efficacemente contro gli abusi da parte dei burocrati. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a412a5e14ea..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: ロスバードはなぜ、成文憲法だけでは国家の権力を制限するには不十分だと考えているのか？ -answer: すべての上記 -wrong_answers: - - 権力者によって容易に改正される可能性がある - - 解釈される可能性がある - - 官僚や役人による権力の乱用を防げない -explanation: | - ロスバードは、成文憲法が国家の権力を制限するには不十分であると考えています。それは、憲法が解釈の対象となり、権力を持つ者によって改正され得ること、そして官僚による乱用に対して効果的に保護しないからです。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f933bc9eb7c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 로스바드는 왜 성문 헌법이 국가의 권력을 제한하기에 충분하지 않다고 생각하나요? -answer: 위의 모든 사항 -wrong_answers: - - 권력자에 의해 쉽게 수정될 수 있습니다 - - 다음과 같이 해석할 수 있습니다 - - 관료와 공무원의 권력 남용을 막을 수 없습니다 -explanation: | - 로스바드는 서면 헌법은 해석의 대상이 되고, 권력자가 수정할 수 있으며, 관료의 남용으로부터 효과적으로 보호하지 못하기 때문에 국가의 권력을 제한하는 데 불충분하다고 생각합니다. - 검토됨: 사실 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2c8cdd43d32..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvorfor mener Rothbard at skriftlige konstitusjoner ikke er nok til å begrense statens makt? -answer: Alle ovennevnte -wrong_answers: - - De kan lett endres av de som har makten - - De kan tolkes - - De kan ikke forhindre maktmisbruk av byråkrater og tjenestemenn -explanation: | - Rothbard mener at skriftlige konstitusjoner ikke er tilstrekkelige for å begrense statens makt fordi de er åpne for tolkning, kan endres av de som innehar makten, og ikke effektivt beskytter mot misbruk av byråkrater. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 316a2c02697..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Waarom gelooft Rothbard dat geschreven grondwetten niet genoeg zijn om de macht van de staat te beperken? -answer: Alle bovenstaande -wrong_answers: - - Ze kunnen gemakkelijk worden gewijzigd door de machthebbers - - Ze kunnen worden geïnterpreteerd - - Ze kunnen machtsmisbruik door bureaucraten en ambtenaren niet voorkomen -explanation: | - Rothbard gelooft dat geschreven grondwetten onvoldoende zijn om de macht van de staat te beperken, omdat ze vatbaar zijn voor interpretatie, gewijzigd kunnen worden door de machthebbers en geen effectieve bescherming bieden tegen misbruik door bureaucraten. - beoordeeld: waar \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a410bba524c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Dlaczego Rothbard uważa, że spisane konstytucje nie wystarczą do ograniczenia władzy państwa? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe -wrong_answers: - - Mogą być łatwo zmieniane przez rządzących - - Można je interpretować - - Nie mogą zapobiec nadużyciom władzy przez biurokratów i urzędników -explanation: | - Rothbard uważa, że spisane konstytucje nie są wystarczające do ograniczenia władzy państwa, ponieważ podlegają interpretacji, mogą być zmieniane przez tych, którzy sprawują władzę i nie chronią skutecznie przed nadużyciami ze strony biurokratów. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3cc989d7985..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Por que Rothbard acredita que constituições escritas não são suficientes para limitar o poder do estado? -answer: Todas as opções acima -wrong_answers: - - Elas podem ser facilmente emendadas por aqueles no poder - - Elas podem ser interpretadas - - Elas não podem prevenir abusos de poder por burocratas e oficiais -explanation: | - Rothbard acredita que constituições escritas não são suficientes para limitar o poder do estado porque estão sujeitas a interpretação, podem ser emendadas por aqueles que detêm o poder, e não protegem efetivamente contra abusos por burocratas. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 90f9123d6be..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni kuki Rothbard abona ko amategeko nshingiro yanditse adahagije kugira ngo ububasha bwa Leta bube buke? -answer: Ivyo vyose biri hejuru -wrong_answers: - - Bishobora guhindurwa bitagoranye n'abafise ububasha . - - Bishobora gusobanurwamwo . - - Ntibashobora gukingira ubutegetsi bukoreshwa nabi n'abategetsi n'abategetsi . -explanation: | - Rothbard abona ko amategeko nshingiro yanditse adahagije kugira ngo agabanye ububasha bwa Leta kuko ashobora gusobanurwamwo, ashobora guhindurwa n’abafise ububasha, kandi ntashobora gukingira neza abakozi bo mu biro. - yasubiwemwo: ukuri \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c4e9ace8e2e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Почему Ротбард считает, что письменные конституции недостаточны для ограничения власти государства? -answer: Все вышеперечисленное -wrong_answers: - - Их можно легко изменить теми, кто находится у власти - - Их можно интерпретировать - - Они не могут предотвратить злоупотребления властью со стороны бюрократов и чиновников -explanation: | - Ротбард считает, что письменные конституции не являются достаточными для ограничения власти государства, поскольку они подлежат интерпретации, могут быть изменены теми, кто обладает властью, и не обеспечивают эффективной защиты от злоупотреблений со стороны бюрократов. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c57f43c792d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Zašto Rothbard veruje da pisani ustavi nisu dovoljni da ograniče moć države? -answer: Sve navedeno -wrong_answers: - - Oni se lako mogu izmeniti od strane onih na vlasti - - Oni se mogu interpretirati - - Oni ne mogu sprečiti zloupotrebe moći od strane birokrata i zvaničnika -explanation: | - Rothbard veruje da pisani ustavi nisu dovoljni da ograniče moć države jer su podložni tumačenju, mogu biti izmenjeni od strane onih koji drže vlast i ne štite efikasno od zloupotreba od strane birokrata. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a5c6dad7e35..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Varför anser Rothbard att skrivna grundlagar inte är tillräckliga för att begränsa statens makt? -answer: Alla ovanstående -wrong_answers: - - De kan lätt ändras av makthavarna - - De kan tolkas på följande sätt - - De kan inte förhindra maktmissbruk av byråkrater och tjänstemän -explanation: | - Rothbard anser att skrivna konstitutioner är otillräckliga för att begränsa statens makt eftersom de är föremål för tolkning, kan ändras av makthavarna och inte effektivt skyddar mot missbruk av byråkrater. - granskad: sann \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0ebe27b439c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Kwa nini Rothbard anaamini kwamba katiba zilizoandikwa hazitoshi kuweka mipaka ya mamlaka ya serikali? -answer: Yote ya hapo juu -wrong_answers: - - Wanaweza kurekebishwa kwa urahisi na walio madarakani - - Wanaweza kufasiriwa - - Hawawezi kuzuia matumizi mabaya ya madaraka na warasimu na viongozi -explanation: | - Rothbard anaamini kwamba katiba zilizoandikwa hazitoshi kuweka kikomo mamlaka ya serikali kwa sababu ziko chini ya tafsiri, zinaweza kurekebishwa na wale walio na mamlaka, na hazilinde ipasavyo dhidi ya unyanyasaji unaofanywa na warasimu. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c10f76be787..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: ทำไม Rothbard ถึงเชื่อว่ารัฐธรรมนูญที่เขียนขึ้นไม่เพียงพอที่จะจำกัดอำนาจของรัฐ? -answer: ทั้งหมดที่กล่าวมา -wrong_answers: - - พวกเขาสามารถแก้ไขได้ง่ายโดยผู้มีอำนาจ - - พวกเขาสามารถตีความได้ - - พวกเขาไม่สามารถป้องกันการใช้อำนาจในทางที่ผิดโดยข้าราชการและเจ้าหน้าที่ -explanation: | - Rothbard เชื่อว่ารัฐธรรมนูญที่เป็นลายลักษณ์อักษรไม่เพียงพอที่จะจำกัดอำนาจของรัฐ เพราะสามารถตีความได้ แก้ไขโดยผู้มีอำนาจ และไม่สามารถป้องกันการละเมิดโดยข้าราชการได้อย่างมีประสิทธิภาพ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8e70905153f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Rothbard neden yazılı anayasaların devletin gücünü sınırlamak için yeterli olmadığına inanıyor? -answer: Yukarıdakilerin hepsi -wrong_answers: - - İktidardakiler tarafından kolayca değiştirilebilirler - - Bunlar yorumlanabilir - - Bürokrat ve memurların yetkilerini kötüye kullanmalarını önleyemezler -explanation: | - Rothbard, yazılı anayasaların devletin gücünü sınırlamakta yetersiz olduğuna inanmaktadır, çünkü yoruma tabidirler, iktidardakiler tarafından değiştirilebilirler ve bürokratların suiistimallerine karşı etkili bir koruma sağlamazlar. - gözden geçirildi: doğru \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 390a997d4ec..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Tại sao Rothbard tin rằng các hiến pháp viết không đủ để hạn chế quyền lực của nhà nước? -answer: Tất cả các lựa chọn trên -wrong_answers: - - Chúng có thể dễ dàng được sửa đổi bởi những người nắm quyền - - Chúng có thể được diễn giải - - Chúng không thể ngăn chặn những lạm dụng quyền lực bởi các quan chức và viên chức -explanation: | - Rothbard tin rằng các hiến pháp viết không đủ để hạn chế quyền lực của nhà nước bởi vì chúng có thể bị diễn giải, có thể được sửa đổi bởi những người nắm quyền, và không hiệu quả trong việc bảo vệ chống lại những lạm dụng bởi các quan chức. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ac56102162b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 为什么罗斯巴德认为仅有成文宪法不足以限制国家权力？ -answer: 所有上述答案 -wrong_answers: - - 那些掌权者可以轻易地对其进行修改 - - 它们可以被解释 - - 它们无法防止官僚和官员的权力滥用 -explanation: | - 罗斯巴德认为，成文宪法不足以限制国家权力，因为它们容易受到解释，可以被那些掌握权力的人修改，并且不能有效地防止官僚滥用权力。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index be0366345f7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/023/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 為何 Rothbard 認為成文憲法不足以限制國家權力？ -answer: 以上皆是 -wrong_answers: - - 當權者可以輕易修改 - - 它們可以解釋為 - - 他們無法防止官僚和官員濫用權力 -explanation: | - Rothbard 認為成文憲法不足以限制國家的權力，因為成文憲法會受到詮釋的限制，可以被掌握權力的人修改，而且無法有效防止官僚濫用權力。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 07744af0191..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Как утвърждаването на човешката свобода в средновековното християнско богословие е допринесло за развитието на модерната мисъл? -answer: Всички отговори по-горе са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Това доведе до оспорване на политическата власт и утвърждаване на свободата на съвестта. - - Той постави основите на защитата на индивидуалните права. - - Той насърчава развитието на експерименталната наука и рационалните изследвания. -explanation: | - Утвърждаването на човешката свобода в средновековното християнско богословие проправя пътя на модерната мисъл, като насърчава автономията на съвестта, полага основите на индивидуалните права и насърчава рационалния и експериментален подход към познанието. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ba5d8f8d307..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jak přispělo tvrzení o lidské svobodě v středověké křesťanské teologii k rozvoji moderního myšlení? -answer: Všechny výše uvedené odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Vedlo to k zpochybňování politické autority a tvrzení o svobodě svědomí. - - Položilo to základy pro obranu individuálních práv. - - Podporovalo to rozvoj experimentální vědy a racionálního výzkumu. -explanation: | - Tvrzení o lidské svobodě ve středověké křesťanské teologii otevřelo cestu modernímu myšlení tím, že podporovalo autonomii svědomí, položilo základy pro individuální práva a propagovalo racionální a experimentální přístup k poznání. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e87df5440ad..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wie trug die Behauptung der menschlichen Freiheit in der mittelalterlichen christlichen Theologie zur Entwicklung des modernen Denkens bei? -answer: Alle oben genannten Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Sie führte zur Infragestellung politischer Autorität und zur Behauptung der Gewissensfreiheit. - - Sie legte den Grundstein für eine Verteidigung der individuellen Rechte. - - Sie förderte die Entwicklung der experimentellen Wissenschaft und der rationalen Forschung. -explanation: | - Die Behauptung der menschlichen Freiheit in der mittelalterlichen christlichen Theologie ebnete den Weg für das moderne Denken, indem sie die Autonomie des Gewissens förderte, den Grundstein für individuelle Rechte legte und einen rationalen und experimentellen Ansatz zum Wissen förderte. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/en.yml index ef7fd4b9469..5314403b1d2 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: How did the assertion of human freedom in medieval Christian theology contribute to the development of modern thought? -answer: All of the above answers are correct. +answer: It led to the questioning of political authority and the assertion of freedom of conscience. wrong_answers: - - It led to the questioning of political authority and the assertion of freedom of conscience. + - It replaced classical philosophy with a purely theological worldview. - It laid the groundwork for a defense of individual rights. - It fostered the development of experimental science and rational research. explanation: | - The assertion of human freedom in medieval Christian theology paved the way for modern thought by encouraging the autonomy of conscience, laying the groundwork for individual rights, and promoting a rational and experimental approach to knowledge. + Medieval Christian theology's assertion of human freedom paved the way for modern thought by establishing that political authority must respect natural law and individual conscience, laying the groundwork for the concept of rights that transcend political power. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 68ad6e25581..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cómo contribuyó la afirmación de la libertad humana en la teología cristiana medieval al desarrollo del pensamiento moderno? -answer: Todas las respuestas anteriores son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - Llevó al cuestionamiento de la autoridad política y la afirmación de la libertad de conciencia. - - Sentó las bases para la defensa de los derechos individuales. - - Fomentó el desarrollo de la ciencia experimental y la investigación racional. -explanation: | - La afirmación de la libertad humana en la teología cristiana medieval allanó el camino para el pensamiento moderno al fomentar la autonomía de la conciencia, sentar las bases para los derechos individuales y promover un enfoque racional y experimental hacia el conocimiento. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fdaed80dc6e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuidas inimvabaduse rõhutamine keskaegses kristlikus teoloogias aitas kaasa kaasaegse mõtte arengule? -answer: Kõik ülaltoodud vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - See viis poliitilise autoriteedi küsimärgi alla seadmiseni ja südametunnistuse vabaduse väitmiseni. - - See lõi aluse individuaalsete õiguste kaitsmisele. - - See soodustas eksperimentaalse teaduse ja ratsionaalse uurimistöö arengut. -explanation: | - Inimvabaduse rõhutamine keskaegses kristlikus teoloogias sillutas teed kaasaegsele mõtlemisele, julgustades südametunnistuse autonoomiat, rajades aluse individuaalsetele õigustele ja edendades ratsionaalset ning eksperimentaalset lähenemist teadmistele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e9d21b82c84..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: چگونه تأکید بر آزادی انسان در الهیات مسیحی قرون وسطی به توسعه تفکر مدرن کمک کرد؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های فوق صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - این به پرسشگری از اقتدار سیاسی و تأکید بر آزادی وجدان منجر شد. - - این زمینه را برای دفاع از حقوق فردی فراهم کرد. - - این امر توسعه علم تجربی و تحقیق عقلانی را تقویت کرد. -explanation: | - ادعای آزادی انسان در الهیات مسیحی قرون وسطی راه را برای اندیشه مدرن هموار کرد، با تشویق به خودمختاری وجدان، ایجاد پایه‌های حقوق فردی و ترویج رویکردی عقلانی و تجربی به دانش. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 88887c800a6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuinka ihmisen vapauden korostaminen keskiaikaisessa kristillisessä teologiassa edesauttoi modernin ajattelun kehittymistä? -answer: Kaikki yllä olevat vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - Se johti poliittisen vallan kyseenalaistamiseen ja omantunnon vapauden korostamiseen. - - Se loi perustan yksilön oikeuksien puolustamiselle. - - Se edisti kokeellisen tieteen ja rationaalisen tutkimuksen kehittymistä. -explanation: | - Ihmisen vapauden korostaminen keskiaikaisessa kristillisessä teologiassa raivasi tietä modernille ajattelulle kannustamalla omantunnon autonomiaan, luomalla perustan yksilön oikeuksille ja edistämällä rationaalista ja kokeellista lähestymistapaa tietoon. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fr.yml index 2271476ed7f..23463695ce6 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: En quoi l'affirmation de la liberté humaine dans la théologie chrétienne médiévale a-t-elle contribué au développement de la pensée moderne ? -answer: Toutes les réponses ci-dessus sont correctes. +answer: Elle a conduit à la remise en question de l'autorité politique et à l'affirmation de la liberté de conscience. wrong_answers: - - Elle a conduit à la remise en question de l'autorité politique et à l'affirmation de la liberté de conscience. + - Elle a remplacé la philosophie classique par une vision du monde purement théologique. - Elle a jeté les bases d'une défense des droits individuels. - Elle a favorisé le développement de la science expérimentale et de la recherche rationnelle. explanation: | - L'affirmation de la liberté humaine dans la théologie chrétienne médiévale a ouvert la voie à la pensée moderne en encourageant l'autonomie de la conscience, en posant les bases des droits individuels et en promouvant une approche rationnelle et expérimentale du savoir. -reviewed: true + L'affirmation de la liberté humaine dans la théologie chrétienne médiévale a ouvert la voie à la pensée moderne en établissant que l'autorité politique doit respecter le droit naturel et la conscience individuelle, posant les bases du concept de droits qui transcendent le pouvoir politique. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 906518a506a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: मध्यकालीन ईसाई धर्मशास्त्र में मानव स्वतंत्रता के दावे ने आधुनिक विचारधारा के विकास में कैसे योगदान दिया? -answer: ऊपर दिए गए सभी जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - इससे राजनीतिक अधिकार पर सवाल उठने लगे और अंतःकरण की आज़ादी पर ज़ोर दिया जाने लगा। - - इसने व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों के बचाव की नींव रखी। - - इसने प्रयोगात्मक विज्ञान और तर्कसंगत शोध के विकास को बढ़ावा दिया। -explanation: | - मध्यकालीन ईसाई धर्मशास्त्र में मानव स्वतंत्रता के दावे ने आधुनिक विचारधारा का रास्ता साफ किया। इसने विवेक की स्वायत्तता को बढ़ावा दिया, व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों की नींव रखी, और ज्ञान के प्रति तर्कसंगत व प्रयोगात्मक दृष्टिकोण को बढ़ावा दिया। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3bb9399bd55..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Bagaimana pernyataan tentang kebebasan manusia dalam teologi Kristen abad pertengahan berkontribusi pada pengembangan pemikiran modern? -answer: Semua jawaban di atas benar. -wrong_answers: - - Ini mengarah pada pertanyaan tentang otoritas politik dan pernyataan tentang kebebasan hati nurani. - - Ini meletakkan dasar untuk pembelaan hak-hak individu. - - Ini mendorong pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan eksperimental dan penelitian rasional. -explanation: | - Pernyataan tentang kebebasan manusia dalam teologi Kristen abad pertengahan membuka jalan bagi pemikiran modern dengan mendorong otonomi hati nurani, meletakkan dasar untuk hak-hak individu, dan mempromosikan pendekatan rasional dan eksperimental terhadap pengetahuan. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 967cc79d06f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: In che modo la dichiarazione della libertà umana nella teologia cristiana medievale ha contribuito allo sviluppo del pensiero moderno? -answer: Tutte le risposte sopra indicate sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - Ha portato al mettere in discussione l'autorità politica e alla dichiarazione della libertà di coscienza. - - Ha gettato le basi per una difesa dei diritti individuali. - - Ha favorito lo sviluppo della scienza sperimentale e della ricerca razionale. -explanation: | - La dichiarazione della libertà umana nella teologia cristiana medievale ha aperto la via al pensiero moderno incoraggiando l'autonomia della coscienza, gettando le basi per i diritti individuali e promuovendo un approccio razionale e sperimentale alla conoscenza. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3ae6192542a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世キリスト教神学における人間の自由の主張は、近代思想の発展にどのように貢献したか？ -answer: 上記のすべての回答が正しい。 -wrong_answers: - - 政治権力への疑問と良心の自由の主張につながった。 - - 個人の権利を擁護するための基盤を築いた。 - - 実験科学と合理的な研究の発展を促進した。 -explanation: | - 中世キリスト教神学における人間の自由の主張は、良心の自律を奨励し、個人の権利のための基盤を築き、知識への合理的かつ実験的なアプローチを促進することで、近代思想への道を開いた。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 781bbaf75d6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 중세 기독교 신학에서 인간의 자유에 대한 주장은 근대 사상의 발전에 어떻게 기여했나요? -answer: 위의 정답은 모두 정답입니다. -wrong_answers: - - 이는 정치적 권위에 대한 의문과 양심의 자유에 대한 주장으로 이어졌습니다. - - 이를 통해 개인의 권리를 보호할 수 있는 토대가 마련되었습니다. - - 실험 과학과 합리적 연구의 발전을 촉진했습니다. -explanation: | - 중세 기독교 신학에서 인간의 자유를 주장한 것은 양심의 자율성을 장려하고 개인의 권리를 위한 토대를 마련하며 지식에 대한 합리적이고 실험적인 접근 방식을 장려함으로써 근대적 사고의 토대를 마련했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 16dba394040..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvordan bidro påstanden om menneskelig frihet i middelaldersk kristen teologi til utviklingen av moderne tankegang? -answer: Alle de ovennevnte svarene er korrekte. -wrong_answers: - - Det førte til spørsmål ved politisk autoritet og påstanden om samvittighetsfrihet. - - Det la grunnlaget for et forsvar av individuelle rettigheter. - - Det fremmet utviklingen av eksperimentell vitenskap og rasjonell forskning. -explanation: | - Påstanden om menneskelig frihet i middelaldersk kristen teologi banet vei for moderne tankegang ved å oppmuntre til samvittighetens autonomi, legge grunnlaget for individuelle rettigheter, og fremme en rasjonell og eksperimentell tilnærming til kunnskap. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d151fb67818..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hoe heeft de bevestiging van de menselijke vrijheid in de middeleeuwse christelijke theologie bijgedragen aan de ontwikkeling van het moderne denken? -answer: Alle bovenstaande antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - Het leidde tot het in twijfel trekken van het politieke gezag en de bevestiging van de vrijheid van geweten. - - Het legde de basis voor een verdediging van individuele rechten. - - Het bevorderde de ontwikkeling van experimentele wetenschap en rationeel onderzoek. -explanation: | - De bevestiging van menselijke vrijheid in de middeleeuwse christelijke theologie plaveide de weg voor het moderne denken door de autonomie van het geweten aan te moedigen, de basis te leggen voor individuele rechten en een rationele en experimentele benadering van kennis te bevorderen. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1b111010055..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: W jaki sposób twierdzenie o ludzkiej wolności w średniowiecznej teologii chrześcijańskiej przyczyniło się do rozwoju współczesnej myśli? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe odpowiedzi są prawidłowe. -wrong_answers: - - Doprowadziło to do zakwestionowania władzy politycznej i zapewnienia wolności sumienia. - - Położył on podwaliny pod obronę praw jednostki. - - Sprzyjało to rozwojowi nauk eksperymentalnych i racjonalnych badań. -explanation: | - Zapewnienie ludzkiej wolności w średniowiecznej teologii chrześcijańskiej utorowało drogę nowoczesnej myśli, zachęcając do autonomii sumienia, kładąc podwaliny pod prawa jednostki oraz promując racjonalne i eksperymentalne podejście do wiedzy. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f998cc91078..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Como a afirmação da liberdade humana na teologia cristã medieval contribuiu para o desenvolvimento do pensamento moderno? -answer: Todas as respostas acima estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - Levou ao questionamento da autoridade política e à afirmação da liberdade de consciência. - - Estabeleceu as bases para a defesa dos direitos individuais. - - Fomentou o desenvolvimento da ciência experimental e da pesquisa racional. -explanation: | - A afirmação da liberdade humana na teologia cristã medieval abriu caminho para o pensamento moderno ao incentivar a autonomia da consciência, estabelecer as bases para os direitos individuais e promover uma abordagem racional e experimental ao conhecimento. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8d0821970e5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni gute kwemeza umwidegemvyo w’umuntu mu vy’idini rya gikirisu ryo mu kinjana ca mbere vyatumye ivyiyumviro vyo muri iki gihe bitera imbere? -answer: Inyishu zose zivugwa haruguru ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Vyatumye abantu bashidikanya ku bukuru bwa politike no kwemeza ko umuntu afise umwidegemvyo wo gukurikiza ijwi ryo mu mutima. - - Yarashizeho umushinge wo kurwanira uburenganzira bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe. - - Yarateye imbere ubuhinga bwo kugerageza n’ubushakashatsi bushingiye ku vyiyumviro. -explanation: | - Ukwemeza umwidegemvyo wa muntu mu vy’idini rya gikirisu ryo mu kinjana ca mbere vyatumye habaho ivyiyumviro vyo muri iki gihe mu kuremesha ijwi ryo mu mutima kwigenga, mu gushinga umushinge w’uburenganzira bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe, no mu guteza imbere uburyo bwo kumenya ibintu bushingiye ku vyiyumviro kandi bushingiye ku kugerageza. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cd7c772eac1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Как утверждение о человеческой свободе в средневековой христианской теологии способствовало развитию современного мышления? -answer: Все вышеперечисленные ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Это привело к подверганию сомнению политической власти и утверждению свободы совести. - - Это заложило основу для защиты индивидуальных прав. - - Это способствовало развитию экспериментальной науки и рациональных исследований. -explanation: | - Утверждение о человеческой свободе в средневековой христианской теологии проложило путь для современного мышления, поощряя автономию совести, заложив основу для индивидуальных прав и продвигая рациональный и экспериментальный подход к познанию. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7a759d7cf92..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kako je tvrdnja o ljudskoj slobodi u srednjovekovnoj hrišćanskoj teologiji doprinela razvoju modernog mišljenja? -answer: Svi gore navedeni odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - To je dovelo do preispitivanja političkog autoriteta i afirmacije slobode savesti. - - Postavilo je temelje za odbranu individualnih prava. - - Podstakao je razvoj eksperimentalne nauke i racionalnog istraživanja. -explanation: | - Afirmacija ljudske slobode u srednjovekovnoj hrišćanskoj teologiji otvorila je put modernoj misli podsticanjem autonomije savesti, postavljanjem temelja za individualna prava i promovisanjem racionalnog i eksperimentalnog pristupa znanju. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b3194304480..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hur bidrog hävdandet av människans frihet i den medeltida kristna teologin till utvecklingen av det moderna tänkandet? -answer: Alla ovanstående svar är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Det ledde till att den politiska makten ifrågasattes och att samvetsfriheten hävdades. - - Den lade grunden för ett försvar av individuella rättigheter. - - Den främjade utvecklingen av experimentell vetenskap och rationell forskning. -explanation: | - Den medeltida kristna teologins hävdande av människans frihet banade väg för det moderna tänkandet genom att uppmuntra samvetets autonomi, lägga grunden för individuella rättigheter och främja ett rationellt och experimentellt förhållningssätt till kunskap. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a277d80a77a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Madai ya uhuru wa binadamu katika teolojia ya Kikristo ya zama za kati yalichangiaje maendeleo ya mawazo ya kisasa? -answer: Majibu yote hapo juu ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Iliongoza kwenye kuhojiwa kwa mamlaka ya kisiasa na kudai uhuru wa dhamiri. - - Iliweka msingi wa utetezi wa haki za mtu binafsi. - - Ilikuza maendeleo ya sayansi ya majaribio na utafiti wa busara. -explanation: | - Madai ya uhuru wa binadamu katika teolojia ya Kikristo ya zama za kati yalifungua njia kwa mawazo ya kisasa kwa kuhimiza uhuru wa dhamiri, kuweka msingi wa haki za mtu binafsi, na kukuza mtazamo wa busara na wa majaribio kwa ujuzi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7461e3e7665..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: การยืนยันเสรีภาพของมนุษย์ในเทววิทยาคริสเตียนยุคกลางมีส่วนช่วยในการพัฒนาความคิดสมัยใหม่อย่างไร? -answer: คำตอบทั้งหมดข้างต้นถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - มันนำไปสู่การตั้งคำถามเกี่ยวกับอำนาจทางการเมืองและการยืนยันเสรีภาพแห่งมโนธรรม - - มันได้วางรากฐานสำหรับการปกป้องสิทธิส่วนบุคคล - - มันส่งเสริมการพัฒนาวิทยาศาสตร์เชิงทดลองและการวิจัยอย่างมีเหตุผล -explanation: | - การยืนยันเสรีภาพของมนุษย์ในเทววิทยาคริสเตียนยุคกลางได้ปูทางไปสู่ความคิดสมัยใหม่โดยการส่งเสริมความเป็นอิสระของมโนธรรม วางรากฐานสำหรับสิทธิส่วนบุคคล และส่งเสริมแนวทางการใช้เหตุผลและการทดลองเพื่อความรู้ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ffffa19fb5a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ortaçağ Hıristiyan teolojisinde insan özgürlüğünün savunulması modern düşüncenin gelişimine nasıl katkıda bulunmuştur? -answer: Yukarıdaki cevapların hepsi doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - Siyasi otoritenin sorgulanmasına ve vicdan özgürlüğünün savunulmasına yol açmıştır. - - Bireysel hakların savunulması için zemin hazırlamıştır. - - Deneysel bilimin ve rasyonel araştırmanın gelişmesini teşvik etmiştir. -explanation: | - Ortaçağ Hıristiyan teolojisinde insan özgürlüğünün savunulması, vicdanın özerkliğini teşvik ederek, bireysel haklar için zemin hazırlayarak ve bilgiye rasyonel ve deneysel bir yaklaşımı teşvik ederek modern düşüncenin yolunu açmıştır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 615e3094509..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Làm thế nào mà việc khẳng định tự do con người trong thần học Kitô giáo thời Trung cổ đã góp phần vào sự phát triển của tư duy hiện đại? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời trên đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Nó dẫn đến việc nghi ngờ quyền lực chính trị và khẳng định tự do lương tâm. - - Nó đặt nền móng cho việc bảo vệ quyền cá nhân. - - Nó thúc đẩy sự phát triển của khoa học thực nghiệm và nghiên cứu lý trí. -explanation: | - Việc khẳng định tự do con người trong thần học Kitô giáo thời Trung cổ đã mở đường cho tư duy hiện đại bằng cách khuyến khích sự tự chủ của lương tâm, đặt nền móng cho quyền cá nhân, và thúc đẩy một cách tiếp cận lý trí và thực nghiệm đối với kiến thức. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2d252046243..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世纪基督教神学中对人类自由的主张是如何促进现代思想发展的？ -answer: 上述所有答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它导致了对政治权威的质疑和良心自由的主张。 - - 它为捍卫个人权利奠定了基础。 - - 它促进了实验科学和理性研究的发展。 -explanation: | - 中世纪基督教神学中对人类自由的主张通过鼓励良心的自主性、为个人权利奠定基础以及推动对知识的理性和实验性方法，为现代思想的发展铺平了道路。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 05df6d4e112..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/044/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世紀基督教神學對人類自由的主張如何促進了現代思想的發展？ -answer: 以上所有答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它引發了對政治權威的質疑和對良心自由的堅持。 - - 它為捍衛個人權利奠定了基礎。 - - 它促進了實驗科學和理性研究的發展。 -explanation: | - 中世紀基督教神學對人類自由的主張為現代思想鋪路，它鼓勵良知的自主性，為個人權利奠定基礎，並推廣理性與實驗性的知識方法。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f9d87db5571..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какви са аргументите, използвани от Църквата, за да утвърди своето върховенство над светската власт? -answer: Всички отговори по-горе са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Властта на папата като викарий на Христос на земята. - - Канонично право и църковни съдилища. - - Превъзходството на християнската вяра над всяка друга религия или философия. -explanation: | - Църквата обосновава върховенството си над светската власт с авторитета на папата като представител на Христос, с властта на църковните съдилища чрез каноничното право и с твърдението, че християнската вяра превъзхожда всички други учения. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b6dc2976a9c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaké argumenty používá církev k potvrzení své nadvlády nad světskou mocí? -answer: Všechny výše uvedené odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Autorita papeže jako zástupce Krista na Zemi. - - Církevní právo a církevní soudy. - - Nadřazenost křesťanské víry nad jakýmkoli jiným náboženstvím nebo filozofií. -explanation: | - Církev odůvodňuje svou nadvládu nad světskou mocí na základě autority papeže jako zástupce Krista, moci církevních soudů prostřednictvím církevního práva a tvrzení, že křesťanská víra převyšuje všechny ostatní doktríny. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4c387380244..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welche Argumente verwendet die Kirche, um ihre Vorherrschaft über die weltliche Macht zu behaupten? -answer: Alle oben genannten Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Die Autorität des Papstes als Stellvertreter Christi auf Erden. - - Kirchenrecht und kirchliche Gerichte. - - Die Überlegenheit des christlichen Glaubens gegenüber jeder anderen Religion oder Philosophie. -explanation: | - Die Kirche begründet ihre Vorherrschaft über die weltliche Macht mit der Autorität des Papstes als Vertreter Christi, der Macht der kirchlichen Gerichte durch das Kirchenrecht und dem Anspruch, dass der christliche Glaube alle anderen Lehren übertrifft. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/en.yml index 2e7f72cccd3..362fcb06db7 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What are the arguments used by the Church to assert its supremacy over temporal power? -answer: All of the above answers are correct. +answer: The authority of the Pope as the vicar of Christ on Earth. wrong_answers: - - The authority of the Pope as the vicar of Christ on Earth. - Canon law and ecclesiastical courts. + - The Church's control over military forces across Europe. - The superiority of the Christian faith over any other religion or philosophy. explanation: | - The Church justifies its supremacy over temporal power based on the authority of the Pope as the representative of Christ, the power of ecclesiastical courts through canon law, and the claim that the Christian faith surpasses all other doctrines. + The primary argument used by the Church to assert its supremacy over temporal power was the authority of the Pope as the representative of Christ on Earth, which gave the Church a claim to spiritual authority over all earthly rulers. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cb4aa53be9b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuáles son los argumentos utilizados por la Iglesia para afirmar su supremacía sobre el poder temporal? -answer: Todas las respuestas anteriores son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - La autoridad del Papa como vicario de Cristo en la Tierra. - - El derecho canónico y los tribunales eclesiásticos. - - La superioridad de la fe cristiana sobre cualquier otra religión o filosofía. -explanation: | - La Iglesia justifica su supremacía sobre el poder temporal basándose en la autoridad del Papa como representante de Cristo, el poder de los tribunales eclesiásticos a través del derecho canónico, y la afirmación de que la fe cristiana supera todas las demás doctrinas. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 29f942e4a4e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Milliseid argumente kasutab Kirik, et väita oma ülemvõimu ajaliku võimu üle? -answer: Kõik ülaltoodud vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - Paavsti autoriteet kui Kristuse asemik Maal. - - Kanoniline õigus ja kirikukohtud. - - Kristliku usu üleolek mistahes muu religiooni või filosoofia üle. -explanation: | - Kirik põhjendab oma ülemvõimu ajaliku võimu üle tuginedes paavsti autoriteedile kui Kristuse esindajale, kirikukohtute võimule läbi kanonilise õiguse, ja väitele, et kristlik usk ületab kõik muud õpetused. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c1443c4198e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: کلیسا از چه استدلال‌هایی برای تأکید بر برتری خود بر قدرت دنیوی استفاده می‌کند؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های فوق صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - اقتدار پاپ به عنوان نماینده مسیح بر روی زمین. - - قانون کلیسا و دادگاه‌های کلیسایی. - - برتری ایمان مسیحی بر هر دین یا فلسفه دیگری. -explanation: | - کلیسا برتری خود بر قدرت دنیوی را بر اساس اقتدار پاپ به عنوان نماینده مسیح، قدرت دادگاه‌های کلیسایی از طریق حقوق کلیسایی، و ادعای اینکه ایمان مسیحی بر تمام آموزه‌های دیگر برتری دارد، توجیه می‌کند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index de2b9828001..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mitkä ovat argumentit, joita Kirkko käyttää perustellakseen ylemmyytensä maallisen vallan yli? -answer: Kaikki yllä olevat vastaukset ovat oikein. -wrong_answers: - - Paavin auktoriteetti Kristuksen sijaisena maan päällä. - - Kanoninen laki ja kirkolliset oikeusistuimet. - - Kristinuskon ylemmyys muihin uskontoihin tai filosofioihin nähden. -explanation: | - Kirkko perustelee ylemmyytensä maallisen vallan yli paavin auktoriteetilla Kristuksen edustajana, kirkollisten oikeusistuinten voimalla kanonisen lain kautta, sekä väitteellä, että kristinusko ylittää kaikki muut opit. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fr.yml index 46cc8e2a88b..70ed4556497 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quels sont les arguments utilisés par l'Église pour affirmer sa suprématie sur le pouvoir temporel ? -answer: Toutes les réponses précédentes sont correctes. +answer: L'autorité du pape en tant que vicaire du Christ sur Terre. wrong_answers: - - L'autorité du Pape en tant que vicaire du Christ sur Terre. - Le droit canon et les tribunaux ecclésiastiques. + - Le contrôle de l'Église sur les forces militaires à travers l'Europe. - La supériorité de la foi chrétienne sur toute autre religion ou philosophie. explanation: | - L'Église justifie sa suprématie sur le pouvoir temporel en se fondant sur l'autorité du Pape comme représentant du Christ, le pouvoir des tribunaux ecclésiastiques à travers le droit canon, et la prétention que la foi chrétienne surpasse toute autre doctrine. -reviewed: true + L'argument principal utilisé par l'Église pour affirmer sa suprématie sur le pouvoir temporel était l'autorité du pape en tant que représentant du Christ sur Terre, ce qui conférait à l'Église une revendication d'autorité spirituelle sur tous les dirigeants terrestres. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d96cd623ba0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: चर्च ने अपने आध्यात्मिक अधिकार को सांसारिक सत्ता से ऊपर स्थापित करने के लिए कौन-कौन से तर्क दिए हैं? -answer: ऊपर दिए गए सभी जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - पोप का अधिकार, जो पृथ्वी पर ईसा मसीह के प्रतिनिधि के रूप में है। - - कैनन कानून और चर्चीय अदालतें। - - ईसाई धर्म की किसी भी अन्य धर्म या दर्शन पर श्रेष्ठता। -explanation: | - चर्च अपनी सांसारिक सत्ता पर वर्चस्व को पोप के अधिकार के आधार पर सही ठहराता है, जो कि ईसा मसीह के प्रतिनिधि के रूप में हैं, कैनन कानून के माध्यम से चर्च की अदालतों की ताकत, और इस दावे पर कि ईसाई धर्म अन्य सभी सिद्धांतों से श्रेष्ठ है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 50969eb5200..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa saja argumen yang digunakan oleh Gereja untuk menegaskan supremasinya atas kekuasaan duniawi? -answer: Semua jawaban di atas benar. -wrong_answers: - - Otoritas Paus sebagai wakil Kristus di Bumi. - - Hukum kanonik dan pengadilan gerejawi. - - Keunggulan iman Kristen atas agama atau filsafat lainnya. -explanation: | - Gereja membenarkan supremasinya atas kekuasaan duniawi berdasarkan otoritas Paus sebagai perwakilan Kristus, kekuatan pengadilan gerejawi melalui hukum kanonik, dan klaim bahwa iman Kristen melampaui semua doktrin lain. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b4d96957b7d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Quali sono gli argomenti utilizzati dalla Chiesa per affermare la sua supremazia sul potere temporale? -answer: Tutte le risposte sopra indicate sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - L'autorità del Papa come vicario di Cristo sulla Terra. - - Il diritto canonico e i tribunali ecclesiastici. - - La superiorità della fede cristiana su qualsiasi altra religione o filosofia. -explanation: | - La Chiesa giustifica la sua supremazia sul potere temporale basandosi sull'autorità del Papa come rappresentante di Cristo, il potere dei tribunali ecclesiastici attraverso il diritto canonico, e l'affermazione che la fede cristiana supera tutte le altre dottrine. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index af5a34588ab..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 教会が俗権に対する自身の最高権力を主張するために用いる論拠は何ですか？ -answer: 上記のすべての回答が正しいです。 -wrong_answers: - - 地上におけるキリストの代理人としての教皇の権威。 - - 教会法と教会裁判所。 - - 他のいかなる宗教や哲学よりもキリスト教の信仰の優越性。 -explanation: | - 教会は、キリストの代表としての教皇の権威、教会法を通じた教会裁判所の力、そしてキリスト教の信仰がすべての他の教義を超越するという主張に基づいて、俗権に対する自身の最高権力を正当化しています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9c225a4964a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 교회가 현세적 권력에 대한 우위를 주장하기 위해 사용하는 논거는 무엇인가요? -answer: 위의 정답은 모두 정답입니다. -wrong_answers: - - 지상에서 그리스도의 대리자로서 교황의 권위. - - 교회법 및 교회 법정. - - 다른 어떤 종교나 철학보다 기독교 신앙의 우월성. -explanation: | - 교회는 그리스도의 대표자인 교황의 권위, 교회법을 통한 교회 법원의 권한, 기독교 신앙이 다른 모든 교리를 능가한다는 주장에 근거하여 현세적 권력에 대한 우월성을 정당화합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f887b1ac497..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvilke argumenter bruker Kirken for å hevde sin overlegenhet over verdslig makt? -answer: Alle de ovennevnte svarene er korrekte. -wrong_answers: - - Paveautoriteten som Kristi stedfortreder på jorden. - - Kanonisk lov og kirkelige domstoler. - - Overlegenheten til den kristne troen over enhver annen religion eller filosofi. -explanation: | - Kirken begrunner sin overlegenhet over verdslig makt basert på paveautoriteten som representant for Kristus, kirkelige domstolers makt gjennom kanonisk lov, og påstanden om at den kristne troen overgår alle andre doktriner. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9e3adc42d50..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welke argumenten gebruikt de kerk om haar suprematie over de wereldlijke macht te bevestigen? -answer: Alle bovenstaande antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - Het gezag van de paus als de plaatsvervanger van Christus op aarde. - - Canoniek recht en kerkelijke rechtbanken. - - De superioriteit van het christelijk geloof boven elke andere religie of filosofie. -explanation: | - De kerk rechtvaardigt haar suprematie over de wereldlijke macht op basis van het gezag van de paus als vertegenwoordiger van Christus, de macht van kerkelijke rechtbanken door het kerkelijk recht en de bewering dat het christelijk geloof alle andere doctrines overtreft. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 70bbb56950d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakimi argumentami posługuje się Kościół, aby potwierdzić swoją wyższość nad władzą doczesną? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe odpowiedzi są prawidłowe. -wrong_answers: - - Autorytet papieża jako wikariusza Chrystusa na Ziemi. - - Prawo kanoniczne i sądy kościelne. - - Wyższość wiary chrześcijańskiej nad jakąkolwiek inną religią lub filozofią. -explanation: | - Kościół uzasadnia swoją supremację nad władzą doczesną w oparciu o autorytet papieża jako przedstawiciela Chrystusa, władzę sądów kościelnych poprzez prawo kanoniczne oraz twierdzenie, że wiara chrześcijańska przewyższa wszystkie inne doktryny. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3bcd1862fcf..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Quais são os argumentos utilizados pela Igreja para afirmar sua supremacia sobre o poder temporal? -answer: Todas as respostas acima estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - A autoridade do Papa como o vigário de Cristo na Terra. - - O direito canônico e os tribunais eclesiásticos. - - A superioridade da fé Cristã sobre qualquer outra religião ou filosofia. -explanation: | - A Igreja justifica sua supremacia sobre o poder temporal com base na autoridade do Papa como representante de Cristo, o poder dos tribunais eclesiásticos através do direito canônico, e a afirmação de que a fé Cristã supera todas as outras doutrinas. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a60e8af1d15..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni imvo izihe Ekleziya ikoresha kugira ngo yemeze ko ari yo isumba ububasha bw’igihe gito? -answer: Inyishu zose zivugwa haruguru ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Ububasha bwa Papa nk’umuvugizi wa Kristo kw’isi. - - Amategeko y’ishengero n’inkiko z’ishengero. - - Ugusumbana kw’ukwizera kwa gikirisu ku yindi dini yose canke filozofiya iyo ari yo yose. -explanation: | - Ekleziya ishingira intahe ubukuru bwayo ku bubasha bw’igihe gito ishingiye ku bubasha bwa Papa nk’uwuserukira Kristo, ububasha bw’inkiko z’ishengero biciye mu mategeko y’ishengero, no kuvuga ko ukwizera kwa gikirisu kurengeye izindi nyigisho zose. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2fe33d4ec93..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какие аргументы использует Церковь, чтобы утверждать свое превосходство над светской властью? -answer: Все вышеперечисленные ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Авторитет Папы как наместника Христа на Земле. - - Каноническое право и церковные суды. - - Превосходство христианской веры над любой другой религией или философией. -explanation: | - Церковь обосновывает свое превосходство над светской властью, опираясь на авторитет Папы как представителя Христа, власть церковных судов через каноническое право, а также утверждение, что христианская вера превосходит все другие учения. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9aea5ae0020..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koje argumente koristi Crkva da bi tvrdila svoju nadmoć nad privremenom vlašću? -answer: Svi gore navedeni odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - Autoritet pape kao Hristovog namesnika na Zemlji. - - Kanon pravo i crkveni sudovi. - - Nadmoć hrišćanske vere nad bilo kojom drugom religijom ili filozofijom. -explanation: | - Crkva opravdava svoju prevlast nad privremenom vlašću na osnovu autoriteta Pape kao predstavnika Hrista, moći crkvenih sudova kroz kanonsko pravo i tvrdnje da hrišćanska vera nadmašuje sve druge doktrine. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7483de4c2b6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilka är de argument som kyrkan använder för att hävda sin överhöghet över den världsliga makten? -answer: Alla ovanstående svar är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Påvens auktoritet som Kristi ställföreträdare på jorden. - - Kanonisk rätt och kyrkliga domstolar. - - Den kristna trons överlägsenhet över alla andra religioner eller filosofier. -explanation: | - Kyrkan motiverar sin överhöghet över den världsliga makten med påvens auktoritet som Kristi företrädare, de kyrkliga domstolarnas makt genom kanonisk rätt och påståendet att den kristna tron överträffar alla andra läror. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 003307fc7b8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, ni hoja zipi zinazotumiwa na Kanisa kuthibitisha ukuu wake juu ya nguvu za muda? -answer: Majibu yote hapo juu ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Mamlaka ya Papa kama mwakilishi wa Kristo Duniani. - - Sheria za Canon na mahakama za kikanisa. - - Ubora wa imani ya Kikristo juu ya dini au falsafa nyingine yoyote. -explanation: | - Kanisa linahalalisha ukuu wake juu ya mamlaka ya muda kwa msingi wa mamlaka ya Papa kama mwakilishi wa Kristo, uwezo wa mahakama za kikanisa kupitia sheria za kanuni, na madai kwamba imani ya Kikristo inapita mafundisho mengine yote. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f6a331938b2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ข้อโต้แย้งที่ใช้โดยคริสตจักรเพื่อยืนยันอำนาจสูงสุดเหนืออำนาจทางโลกคืออะไร? -answer: คำตอบทั้งหมดข้างต้นถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - อำนาจของพระสันตะปาปาในฐานะผู้แทนของพระคริสต์บนโลก - - กฎหมายบัญญัติและศาลศาสนจักร - - ความเหนือกว่าของความเชื่อคริสเตียนเหนือศาสนาหรือปรัชญาอื่นใด -explanation: | - คริสตจักรให้เหตุผลถึงอำนาจสูงสุดเหนืออำนาจทางโลกโดยอ้างอิงถึงอำนาจของพระสันตะปาปาในฐานะตัวแทนของพระคริสต์, อำนาจของศาลศาสนาผ่านกฎหมายศาสนจักร, และการอ้างว่าความเชื่อคริสเตียนเหนือกว่าหลักคำสอนอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1ce333ba676..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kilise'nin zamansal güç üzerindeki üstünlüğünü savunmak için kullandığı argümanlar nelerdir? -answer: Yukarıdaki cevapların hepsi doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - İsa'nın yeryüzündeki vekili olarak Papa'nın otoritesi. - - Kilise hukuku ve kilise mahkemeleri. - - Hıristiyan inancının diğer din veya felsefelere üstünlüğü. -explanation: | - Kilise, geçici güç üzerindeki üstünlüğünü, Mesih'in temsilcisi olarak Papa'nın otoritesine, kanon hukuku aracılığıyla kilise mahkemelerinin gücüne ve Hıristiyan inancının diğer tüm doktrinlerden üstün olduğu iddiasına dayanarak haklı çıkarmaktadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f5487165b09..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Những lập luận nào được Giáo hội sử dụng để khẳng định sự ưu việt của mình so với quyền lực thế tục? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời trên đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Quyền lực của Giáo hoàng như là đại diện của Chúa Kitô trên Trái Đất. - - Luật canon và các tòa án giáo hội. - - Sự ưu việt của đức tin Cơ Đốc giáo so với bất kỳ tôn giáo hoặc triết học nào khác. -explanation: | - Giáo hội biện minh cho sự ưu việt của mình so với quyền lực thế tục dựa trên quyền lực của Giáo hoàng như là đại diện của Chúa Kitô, quyền lực của các tòa án giáo hội thông qua luật canon, và quan điểm rằng đức tin Cơ Đốc giáo vượt trội hơn tất cả các học thuyết khác. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e83f6506528..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 教会用哪些论点来主张其对世俗权力的至高无上？ -answer: 以上所有答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 教皇作为基督在地上的代表的权威。 - - 教会法和教会法庭。 - - 基督教信仰优于任何其他宗教或哲学的优越性。 -explanation: - 教会基于教皇作为基督代表的权威、通过教会法的教会法庭的权力，以及声称基督教信仰超越所有其他教义，来证明其对世俗权力的至高无上。 -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fd2eef05abb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/053/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 教會用什麼論據來宣稱其凌駕於世俗權力之上？ -answer: 以上所有答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 教宗作為基督在世上的代治者的權威。 - - 教會法和教會法庭。 - - 基督教信仰比任何其他宗教或哲學都優越。 -explanation: | - 教會以教宗作為基督代表的權威、教會法院透過教會法的權力，以及基督教信仰超越所有其他教義的主張，為其凌駕於世俗權力的地位辯護。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0139057e8c3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какви средства са използвали кралете, за да утвърдят суверенитета си срещу Църквата? -answer: Всички останали отговори са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Развитието на централизиран и мощен държавен апарат. - - Създаване на собствени правни и данъчни системи. - - Събиране на армии и водене на войни срещу Църквата. -explanation: | - За да отстояват суверенитета си срещу Църквата, кралете укрепват властта си, като централизират държавата, създават свои собствени правни и данъчни системи, а понякога изпращат армии, за да оспорят църковното влияние. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fbf8d1b7f84..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakými prostředky králové prosazovali svou suverenitu vůči církvi? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Vývoj centralizovaného a mocného státního aparátu. - - Vytvoření vlastních právních a fiskálních systémů. - - Sestavování armád a vedení válek proti církvi. -explanation: | - Aby králové prosazovali svou suverenitu vůči církvi, posilovali svou moc centralizací státu, zřizováním vlastních právních a fiskálních systémů a někdy i nasazením armád k výzvě církevního vlivu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1a446238f1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welche Mittel setzten Könige ein, um ihre Souveränität gegenüber der Kirche zu behaupten? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Die Entwicklung eines zentralisierten und mächtigen Staatsapparats. - - Die Schaffung eigener rechtlicher und fiskalischer Systeme. - - Das Aufstellen von Armeen und das Führen von Kriegen gegen die Kirche. -explanation: | - Um ihre Souveränität gegenüber der Kirche zu behaupten, stärkten Könige ihre Macht, indem sie den Staat zentralisierten, eigene rechtliche und fiskalische Systeme etablierten und manchmal Armeen einsetzten, um den kirchlichen Einfluss herauszufordern. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/en.yml index f181f015da6..11baacaa134 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What means did kings use to assert their sovereignty against the Church? -answer: All the other answers are correct. +answer: The development of a centralized and powerful state apparatus. wrong_answers: - - The development of a centralized and powerful state apparatus. - The creation of their own legal and fiscal systems. + - The adoption of non-Christian religions to undermine papal authority. - Raising armies and waging wars against the Church. explanation: | - To assert their sovereignty against the Church, kings strengthened their power by centralizing the state, establishing their own legal and fiscal systems, and sometimes by deploying armies to challenge ecclesiastical influence. + Kings primarily asserted their sovereignty against the Church by developing a centralized state apparatus, establishing independent power structures that could rival ecclesiastical authority and reduce the Church's influence on governance. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e043a0b2b6a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Qué medios utilizaron los reyes para afirmar su soberanía frente a la Iglesia? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - El desarrollo de un aparato estatal centralizado y poderoso. - - La creación de sus propios sistemas legales y fiscales. - - Levantar ejércitos y librar guerras contra la Iglesia. -explanation: | - Para afirmar su soberanía frente a la Iglesia, los reyes fortalecieron su poder centralizando el estado, estableciendo sus propios sistemas legales y fiscales, y a veces desplegando ejércitos para desafiar la influencia eclesiástica. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6666c9129f8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Milliseid vahendeid kasutasid kuningad oma suveräänsuse tõestamiseks Kiriku vastu? -answer: Kõik teised vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - Keskse ja võimsa riigiaparaadi arendamine. - - Oma õigus- ja maksusüsteemide loomine. - - Armeede värbamine ja sõdade pidamine Kiriku vastu. -explanation: | - Oma suveräänsuse tõestamiseks Kiriku vastu tugevdasid kuningad oma võimu, keskendades riiki, luues oma õigus- ja maksusüsteemid ning mõnikord ka värvates armeesid, et vaidlustada kiriklikku mõju. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 75408c89dd0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: پادشاهان از چه ابزارهایی برای اثبات حاکمیت خود در برابر کلیسا استفاده می‌کردند؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - توسعه یک دستگاه دولتی متمرکز و قدرتمند. - - ایجاد سیستم‌های قانونی و مالیاتی خودشان. - - ارتش‌ها را بسیج کردن و جنگ‌ها را علیه کلیسا به راه انداختن. -explanation: | - برای تأکید بر حاکمیت خود در برابر کلیسا، پادشاهان قدرت خود را با متمرکز کردن دولت، ایجاد سیستم‌های قانونی و مالی خود و گاهی با اعزام ارتش‌ها برای به چالش کشیدن نفوذ کلیسایی تقویت کردند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 678d16e0f87..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mitä keinoja kuninkaat käyttivät vahvistaakseen suvereniteettiaan kirkkoa vastaan? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - Keskusjohtoisen ja voimakkaan valtiojärjestelmän kehittäminen. - - Oman oikeudellisen ja verotuksellisen järjestelmän luominen. - - Armeijoiden kokoaminen ja sotien käyminen kirkkoa vastaan. -explanation: | - Vahvistaakseen suvereniteettiaan kirkkoa vastaan, kuninkaat vahvistivat valtaansa keskittämällä valtion, perustamalla omat oikeudelliset ja verotukselliset järjestelmänsä, ja joskus myös käyttämällä armeijoita haastaakseen kirkollisen vaikutusvallan. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fr.yml index 41901644427..c192a7db986 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quels sont les moyens utilisés par les rois pour affirmer leur souveraineté face à l'Église ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses sont correctes. +answer: Le développement d'un appareil d'État centralisé et puissant. wrong_answers: - - Le développement d'un appareil d'État centralisé et puissant. - La création de leurs propres systèmes juridiques et fiscaux. + - L'adoption de religions non chrétiennes pour saper l'autorité papale. - La levée d'armées et la conduite de guerres contre l'Église. explanation: | - Pour affirmer leur souveraineté face à l'Église, les rois ont renforcé leur pouvoir en centralisant l'État, en instituant leurs propres systèmes juridiques et fiscaux, et parfois en opposant des armées pour contester l'influence ecclésiastique. -reviewed: true + Les rois ont principalement affirmé leur souveraineté face à l'Église en développant un appareil d'État centralisé, établissant des structures de pouvoir indépendantes capables de rivaliser avec l'autorité ecclésiastique et de réduire l'influence de l'Église sur la gouvernance. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0589adb9fec..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: राजाओं ने चर्च के खिलाफ अपनी सत्ता जताने के लिए कौन-कौन से तरीके अपनाए? -answer: सारे दूसरे जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - एक केंद्रीकृत और शक्तिशाली राज्य तंत्र का विकास। - - अपनी खुद की कानूनी और वित्तीय प्रणालियों का निर्माण। - - सेनाएँ खड़ी करना और चर्च के खिलाफ युद्ध छेड़ना। -explanation: | - चर्च के खिलाफ अपनी संप्रभुता साबित करने के लिए, राजाओं ने राज्य को केंद्रीकृत करके, अपने खुद के कानूनी और वित्तीय सिस्टम स्थापित करके, और कभी-कभी सेना का इस्तेमाल करके चर्च के प्रभाव को चुनौती दी। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fe98af47abc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa cara yang digunakan oleh raja-raja untuk menegaskan kedaulatan mereka terhadap Gereja? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya benar. -wrong_answers: - - Pengembangan aparatur negara yang terpusat dan kuat. - - Pembuatan sistem hukum dan fiskal mereka sendiri. - - Merekrut tentara dan mengobarkan perang terhadap Gereja. -explanation: | - Untuk menegaskan kedaulatan mereka terhadap Gereja, raja-raja memperkuat kekuasaan mereka dengan memusatkan negara, mendirikan sistem hukum dan fiskal mereka sendiri, dan terkadang dengan mengerahkan tentara untuk menantang pengaruh keagamaan. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index af8e9af9345..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Quali mezzi utilizzavano i re per affermare la loro sovranità contro la Chiesa? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - Lo sviluppo di un apparato statale centralizzato e potente. - - La creazione dei propri sistemi legali e fiscali. - - Arruolare eserciti e dichiarare guerre contro la Chiesa. -explanation: | - Per affermare la loro sovranità contro la Chiesa, i re rafforzavano il loro potere centralizzando lo Stato, stabilendo i propri sistemi legali e fiscali, e talvolta dispiegando eserciti per sfidare l'influenza ecclesiastica. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8be30d8c861..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 王たちは教会に対して自らの主権を主張するためにどのような手段を用いたか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答が正しい。 -wrong_answers: - - 中央集権化された強力な国家機構の発展。 - - 自らの法律体系と財政システムの創設。 - - 軍隊を編成し、教会に対して戦争を行う。 -explanation: | - 王たちは教会に対する自らの主権を主張するために、国家を中央集権化し、自らの法律体系と財政システムを確立し、時には軍隊を動員して教会の影響力に挑戦することで、自らの権力を強化した。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a66200d3ffb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 왕들은 교회에 대항하여 자신의 주권을 주장하기 위해 어떤 수단을 사용했나요? -answer: 다른 모든 정답이 맞습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 중앙집권적이고 강력한 국가기구의 개발. - - 자체적인 법률 및 재정 시스템을 구축합니다. - - 군대를 모집하고 교회를 상대로 전쟁을 벌입니다. -explanation: | - 교회에 대항하여 주권을 주장하기 위해 왕들은 국가를 중앙집권화하고, 독자적인 법률 및 재정 시스템을 구축했으며, 때로는 군대를 배치하여 교회의 영향력에 도전함으로써 권력을 강화했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a37eecb19d6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvilke midler brukte konger for å hevde sin suverenitet overfor Kirken? -answer: Alle de andre svarene er riktige. -wrong_answers: - - Utviklingen av en sentralisert og kraftfull statsapparat. - - Opprettelsen av deres egne juridiske og økonomiske systemer. - - Å stille hærer og føre kriger mot Kirken. -explanation: | - For å hevde sin suverenitet overfor Kirken, styrket kongene sin makt ved å sentralisere staten, etablere deres egne juridiske og økonomiske systemer, og noen ganger ved å utplassere hærer for å utfordre kirkelig innflytelse. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7db6b6e4996..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welke middelen gebruikten koningen om hun soevereiniteit te laten gelden tegenover de Kerk? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - De ontwikkeling van een gecentraliseerd en machtig staatsapparaat. - - Het opzetten van hun eigen juridische en fiscale systemen. - - Legers oprichten en oorlogen voeren tegen de kerk. -explanation: | - Om hun soevereiniteit tegenover de kerk te laten gelden, versterkten koningen hun macht door de staat te centraliseren, hun eigen juridische en fiscale systemen op te zetten en soms door legers in te zetten om de kerkelijke invloed uit te dagen. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 574269ed7d4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakich środków używali królowie, aby zapewnić sobie suwerenność przeciwko Kościołowi? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi są poprawne. -wrong_answers: - - Rozwój scentralizowanego i potężnego aparatu państwowego. - - Stworzenie własnych systemów prawnych i podatkowych. - - Tworzenie armii i prowadzenie wojen przeciwko Kościołowi. -explanation: | - Aby zapewnić sobie suwerenność przeciwko Kościołowi, królowie wzmocnili swoją władzę poprzez centralizację państwa, ustanowienie własnych systemów prawnych i fiskalnych, a czasem poprzez rozmieszczenie armii w celu podważenia wpływów kościelnych. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ab3e0c2c561..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Quais meios os reis utilizavam para afirmar sua soberania contra a Igreja? -answer: Todas as outras respostas estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - O desenvolvimento de um aparelho de estado centralizado e poderoso. - - A criação de seus próprios sistemas legais e fiscais. - - Levantar exércitos e travar guerras contra a Igreja. -explanation: | - Para afirmar sua soberania contra a Igreja, os reis fortaleciam seu poder centralizando o estado, estabelecendo seus próprios sistemas legais e fiscais, e às vezes, desdobrando exércitos para desafiar a influência eclesiástica. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bbc22090ebc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni uburyo ubuhe abami bakoresha kugira ngo bemeze ubusegaba bwabo kuri Ekleziya? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Gutegura igikoresho ca Leta gihurikiye hamwe kandi gikomeye. - - Gushinga uburyo bwabo bwite bwo gukurikiza amategeko n’ivy’ubutunzi. - - Guhagurutsa ingabo no gutera intambara Ekleziya. -explanation: | - Kugira ngo abami bemeze ubusegaba bwabo kuri Ekleziya, barakomeza ububasha bwabo mu gushiramwo Leta hamwe, bagashinga amategeko yabo n’ivy’ubutunzi, rimwe na rimwe bagatuma ingabo zirwanya akosho k’ishengero. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6c0cf5d7f75..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какие средства использовали короли, чтобы утвердить свой суверенитет в противовес Церкви? -answer: Все другие ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Развитие централизованного и мощного государственного аппарата. - - Создание собственных правовых и фискальных систем. - - Формирование армий и ведение войн против Церкви. -explanation: | - Чтобы утвердить свой суверенитет в противовес Церкви, короли укрепляли свою власть, централизуя государство, создавая собственные правовые и фискальные системы, а иногда и развертывая армии для борьбы с церковным влиянием. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7e91d05eadf..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja su sredstva kraljevi koristili da potvrde svoj suverenitet protiv Crkve? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - Razvoj centralizovanog i moćnog državnog aparata. - - Stvaranje sopstvenih pravnih i fiskalnih sistema. - - Podizanje vojski i vođenje ratova protiv Crkve. -explanation: | - Da bi potvrdili svoj suverenitet protiv Crkve, kraljevi su jačali svoju moć centralizacijom države, uspostavljanjem sopstvenih pravnih i fiskalnih sistema, a ponekad i raspoređivanjem vojski kako bi osporili crkveni uticaj. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f01441e8fb7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilka medel använde kungar för att hävda sin suveränitet mot kyrkan? -answer: Alla de andra svaren är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Utvecklingen av en centraliserad och kraftfull statsapparat. - - Skapandet av egna rätts- och skattesystem. - - Upprätta arméer och föra krig mot kyrkan. -explanation: | - För att hävda sin suveränitet gentemot kyrkan stärkte kungarna sin makt genom att centralisera staten, upprätta egna rätts- och skattesystem och ibland genom att sätta in arméer för att utmana det kyrkliga inflytandet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 493407c4b29..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wafalme walitumia njia gani kuthibitisha mamlaka yao dhidi ya Kanisa? -answer: Majibu mengine yote ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Ukuzaji wa kifaa cha serikali kuu na chenye nguvu. - - Uundaji wa mifumo yao ya kisheria na ya kifedha. - - Kuinua majeshi na kupigana vita dhidi ya Kanisa. -explanation: | - Ili kuthibitisha mamlaka yao dhidi ya Kanisa, wafalme waliimarisha mamlaka yao kwa kuweka serikali katikati, kuanzisha mifumo yao ya kisheria na ya kifedha, na wakati mwingine kwa kupeleka majeshi ili kupinga ushawishi wa kikanisa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ccdb74640e0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: กษัตริย์ใช้วิธีใดในการยืนยันอำนาจอธิปไตยของตนต่อสู้กับคริสตจักร? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมดถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - การพัฒนากลไกรัฐที่มีศูนย์กลางและทรงพลัง - - การสร้างระบบกฎหมายและการเงินของตนเอง - - การระดมกองทัพและทำสงครามกับคริสตจักร -explanation: | - เพื่อยืนยันอธิปไตยของพวกเขาต่อคริสตจักร กษัตริย์ได้เสริมสร้างอำนาจของตนโดยการรวมศูนย์รัฐ จัดตั้งระบบกฎหมายและการคลังของตนเอง และบางครั้งโดยการส่งกองทัพเพื่อท้าทายอิทธิพลของศาสนจักร -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b0e8428f655..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Krallar egemenliklerini Kilise'ye karşı savunmak için hangi araçları kullandılar? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - Merkezi ve güçlü bir devlet aygıtının geliştirilmesi. - - Kendi yasal ve mali sistemlerini oluşturmaları. - - Ordular kurup Kilise'ye karşı savaş açtılar. -explanation: | - Krallar, Kilise'ye karşı egemenliklerini savunmak için devleti merkezileştirerek, kendi yasal ve mali sistemlerini kurarak ve bazen de kilisenin nüfuzuna meydan okumak için ordular konuşlandırarak güçlerini pekiştirdiler. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 36d5bfc8283..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Các vua chúa đã sử dụng phương tiện gì để khẳng định chủ quyền của mình đối với Giáo hội? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Phát triển một hệ thống nhà nước trung ương hóa và mạnh mẽ. - - Tạo dựng hệ thống pháp lý và tài chính riêng của họ. - - Tổ chức quân đội và tiến hành chiến tranh chống lại Giáo hội. -explanation: | - Để khẳng định chủ quyền của mình đối với Giáo hội, các vua chúa đã tăng cường quyền lực bằng cách trung ương hóa nhà nước, thiết lập hệ thống pháp lý và tài chính riêng, và đôi khi triển khai quân đội để thách thức ảnh hưởng của giáo hội. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1711783fcfa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 国王用什么手段来对抗教会，以维护他们的主权？ -answer: 所有其他答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 发展集中而强大的国家机器。 - - 创建他们自己的法律和财政体系。 - - 组建军队并对教会发动战争。 -explanation: | - 为了对抗教会维护他们的主权，国王通过集中国家权力、建立自己的法律和财政体系，有时还部署军队来挑战教权的影响力来加强他们的权力。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d398a35bae5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/054/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 國王用什麼方法來宣示他們對教會的主權？ -answer: 其他答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 發展中央集权的强大国家机器。 - - 建立自己的法律和財政制度。 - - 組織軍隊，發動反教會的戰爭。 -explanation: | - 為了向教會宣示自己的主權，國王們透過中央集权、建立自己的法律和財政制度，有時還會部署軍隊挑戰教會的影響力，從而加強自己的權力。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 70ded992bbb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: По какво библейската етика се различава от древната? -answer: Всички останали отговори са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Библейската етика придава безкрайна стойност на индивида, тъй като той е създаден по образ и подобие на Бога, докато античната етика подчинява човека на космоса. - - Библейската етика се застъпва за любовта към ближния и състраданието, докато античната етика набляга на справедливостта и реципрочността. - - Библейската етика е насочена към всички хора, докато античната етика е запазена за елитна група граждани. -explanation: | - Библейската етика оценява индивида като носител на божествено достойнство, насърчава универсалната любов и състрадание и е насочена към всички човешки същества, за разлика от античната етика, която привилегирова елита и се фокусира върху космическата хармония и взаимната справедливост. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 02b49a01016..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jak se biblická etika liší od starověké etiky? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Biblická etika přisuzuje jednotlivci nekonečnou hodnotu, jelikož je stvořen k obrazu Božímu, zatímco starověká etika podřizuje člověka kosmu. - - Biblická etika prosazuje lásku k bližnímu a soucit, zatímco starověká etika zdůrazňuje spravedlnost a reciprocitu. - - Biblická etika se obrací na všechny lidi, zatímco starověká etika je vyhrazena pro elitní skupinu občanů. -explanation: | - Biblická etika oceňuje jednotlivce jako nositele božské důstojnosti, prosazuje univerzální lásku a soucit a obrací se na všechny lidi, na rozdíl od starověké etiky, která privileguje elitu a soustředí se na kosmickou harmonii a reciprokou spravedlnost. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 36581ea2ccc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Worin unterscheidet sich die biblische Ethik von der antiken Ethik? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Die biblische Ethik weist dem Individuum einen unendlichen Wert zu, da es im Bild Gottes geschaffen wurde, während die antike Ethik den Menschen dem Kosmos unterordnet. - - Die biblische Ethik befürwortet die Liebe zum Nächsten und Mitgefühl, während die antike Ethik Gerechtigkeit und Reziprozität betont. - - Die biblische Ethik richtet sich an alle Menschen, während die antike Ethik einer Elitegruppe von Bürgern vorbehalten ist. -explanation: | - Die biblische Ethik schätzt das Individuum als Träger göttlicher Würde, fördert universelle Liebe und Mitgefühl und richtet sich an alle Menschen, im Gegensatz zur antiken Ethik, die eine Elite bevorzugt und sich auf kosmische Harmonie und gegenseitige Gerechtigkeit konzentriert. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/en.yml index 6ebeb521081..678b704859d 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: How does biblical ethics differ from ancient ethics? -answer: All the other answers are correct. +answer: Biblical ethics assigns infinite value to the individual as they are created in the image of God, whereas ancient ethics subordinates man to the cosmos. wrong_answers: - - Biblical ethics assigns infinite value to the individual as they are created in the image of God, whereas ancient ethics subordinates man to the cosmos. - Biblical ethics advocates for love of neighbor and compassion, while ancient ethics emphasizes justice and reciprocity. + - Biblical ethics focuses on ritual observance, whereas ancient ethics is based on rational inquiry. - Biblical ethics addresses all men, whereas ancient ethics is reserved for an elite group of citizens. explanation: | - Biblical ethics values the individual as bearing divine dignity, promotes universal love and compassion, and addresses all human beings, in contrast with ancient ethics, which privileges an elite and focuses on cosmic harmony and reciprocal justice. + The fundamental difference is that biblical ethics affirms the sacred and infinite value of each individual created in God's image, whereas ancient thought subordinated man to a divine cosmos, treating him as merely part of a larger order. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1fcbfe33b2f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿En qué se diferencia la ética bíblica de la ética antigua? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - La ética bíblica asigna un valor infinito al individuo ya que están creados a imagen de Dios, mientras que la ética antigua subordina al hombre al cosmos. - - La ética bíblica aboga por el amor al prójimo y la compasión, mientras que la ética antigua enfatiza la justicia y la reciprocidad. - - La ética bíblica se dirige a todos los hombres, mientras que la ética antigua está reservada para un grupo elitista de ciudadanos. -explanation: | - La ética bíblica valora al individuo como portador de dignidad divina, promueve el amor universal y la compasión, y se dirige a todos los seres humanos, en contraste con la ética antigua, que privilegia a una élite y se centra en la armonía cósmica y la justicia recíproca. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4876745fc99..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuidas erineb piibellik eetika iidsest eetikast? -answer: Kõik teised vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - Piibellik eetika omistab inimesele lõpmatut väärtust, kuna nad on loodud Jumala näo järgi, samas kui iidne eetika allutab inimese kosmosele. - - Piibellik eetika propageerib ligimesearmastust ja kaastunnet, samal ajal kui iidne eetika rõhutab õiglust ja vastastikkust. - - Piibellik eetika käsitleb kõiki inimesi, samas kui iidne eetika on reserveeritud eliitrühma kodanikele. -explanation: | - Piibellik eetika väärtustab inimest kui jumalikku väärikust kandvat olendit, edendab universaalset armastust ja kaastunnet ning käsitleb kõiki inimolendeid, erinevalt iidsest eetikast, mis privileegib eliiti ja keskendub kosmilisele harmooniale ja vastastikusele õiglusele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8f8eb979912..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: اخلاقیات کتاب مقدس چگونه با اخلاقیات باستانی تفاوت دارد؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - اخلاقیات کتاب مقدس به فرد ارزش بی‌نهایت می‌دهد زیرا او به صورت خدا آفریده شده است، در حالی که اخلاقیات باستانی انسان را به کیهان تابع می‌کند. - - اخلاقیات کتاب مقدس بر عشق به همسایه و شفقت تأکید دارد، در حالی که اخلاقیات باستانی بر عدالت و مقابله به مثل تأکید می‌کند. - - اخلاقیات کتاب مقدس به همه انسان‌ها می‌پردازد، در حالی که اخلاقیات باستانی برای یک گروه نخبه از شهروندان محفوظ است. -explanation: | - اخلاقیات کتاب مقدس فرد را به عنوان حامل کرامت الهی ارزش می‌نهد، عشق و شفقت جهانی را ترویج می‌کند و به همه انسان‌ها می‌پردازد، در مقابل اخلاقیات باستانی که به نخبگان اولویت می‌دهد و بر هماهنگی کیهانی و عدالت متقابل تمرکز دارد. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 86ebddd86a5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Miten raamatullinen etiikka eroaa antiikin etiikasta? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - Raamatullinen etiikka antaa äärettömän arvon yksilölle, koska heidät on luotu Jumalan kuvaksi, kun taas antiikin etiikka asettaa ihmisen kosmoksen alaiseksi. - - Raamatullinen etiikka kannustaa lähimmäisen rakkauteen ja myötätuntoon, kun taas antiikin etiikka korostaa oikeudenmukaisuutta ja vastavuoroisuutta. - - Raamatullinen etiikka kohdistuu kaikkiin ihmisiin, kun taas antiikin etiikka on varattu eliittiryhmälle kansalaisia. -explanation: | - Raamatullinen etiikka arvostaa yksilöä kantaen jumalallista arvokkuutta, edistää yleismaailmallista rakkautta ja myötätuntoa, ja kohdistuu kaikkiin ihmisiin, toisin kuin antiikin etiikka, joka suosii eliittiä ja keskittyy kosmiseen harmoniaan ja vastavuoroiseen oikeudenmukaisuuteen. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fr.yml index bb011e2a103..c91562380d6 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: En quoi l'éthique biblique se distingue-t-elle de l'éthique antique ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses sont correctes. +answer: L'éthique biblique attribue une valeur infinie à l'individu car il est créé à l'image de Dieu, tandis que l'éthique antique subordonne l'homme au cosmos. wrong_answers: - - L'éthique biblique accorde une valeur infinie à l'individu en tant qu'il est créé à l'image de Dieu, tandis que l'éthique antique subordonne l'homme au cosmos. - L'éthique biblique prône l'amour du prochain et la compassion, tandis que l'éthique antique met l'accent sur la justice et la réciprocité. + - L'éthique biblique se concentre sur l'observance rituelle, tandis que l'éthique antique repose sur la recherche rationnelle. - L'éthique biblique s'adresse à tous les hommes, tandis que l'éthique antique est réservée à une élite de citoyens. explanation: | - L'éthique biblique valorise l'individu comme porteur d'une dignité divine, promeut l'amour universel et la compassion, et s'adresse à tous les êtres humains, en contraste avec l'éthique antique, qui privilégie une élite et se concentre sur l'harmonie cosmique et la justice réciproque. -reviewed: true + La différence fondamentale est que l'éthique biblique affirme la valeur sacrée et infinie de chaque individu créé à l'image de Dieu, tandis que la pensée antique subordonnait l'homme à un cosmos divin, le traitant comme simple partie d'un ordre plus vaste. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 77962e63024..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: बाइबिल की नैतिकता और प्राचीन नैतिकता में क्या अंतर है? -answer: बाकी सारे जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - बाइबिल की नैतिकता व्यक्ति को अनंत मूल्य देती है क्योंकि उसे ईश्वर के रूप में बनाया गया है, जबकि प्राचीन नैतिकता मनुष्य को ब्रह्मांड के अधीन मानती है। - - बाइबिल की नैतिकता पड़ोसी से प्यार और दया की वकालत करती है, जबकि प्राचीन नैतिकता न्याय और आपसीता पर ज़ोर देती है। - - बाइबिल की नैतिकता सभी लोगों को संबोधित करती है, जबकि प्राचीन नैतिकता केवल नागरिकों के एक विशेष समूह के लिए होती थी। -explanation: | - बाइबिल की नैतिकता हर व्यक्ति को ईश्वरीय गरिमा से सम्मानित मानती है, सार्वभौमिक प्रेम और करुणा को बढ़ावा देती है, और सभी मनुष्यों को संबोधित करती है। यह प्राचीन नैतिकता से अलग है, जो केवल एक विशिष्ट वर्ग को महत्व देती है और ब्रह्मांडीय सामंजस्य तथा आपसी न्याय पर केंद्रित होती है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a3b6e333b11..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Bagaimana etika biblikal berbeda dari etika kuno? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya benar. -wrong_answers: - - Etika biblikal memberikan nilai tak terhingga kepada individu karena mereka diciptakan menurut gambar Tuhan, sedangkan etika kuno menempatkan manusia di bawah kosmos. - - Etika biblikal menganjurkan kasih kepada sesama dan belas kasih, sementara etika kuno menekankan keadilan dan timbal balik. - - Etika biblikal ditujukan kepada semua orang, sedangkan etika kuno hanya diperuntukkan bagi kelompok elit warga negara. -explanation: | - Etika biblikal menghargai individu sebagai pembawa martabat ilahi, mempromosikan kasih universal dan belas kasih, serta menjangkau semua manusia, berbeda dengan etika kuno yang memberi hak istimewa kepada elit dan fokus pada harmoni kosmik dan keadilan timbal balik. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dedc79c3bef..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: In che modo l'etica biblica si differenzia dall'etica antica? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - L'etica biblica attribuisce un valore infinito all'individuo poiché creato a immagine di Dio, mentre l'etica antica subordina l'uomo al cosmo. - - L'etica biblica promuove l'amore per il prossimo e la compassione, mentre l'etica antica enfatizza la giustizia e la reciprocità. - - L'etica biblica si rivolge a tutti gli uomini, mentre l'etica antica è riservata a un gruppo elitario di cittadini. -explanation: | - L'etica biblica valorizza l'individuo come portatore di dignità divina, promuove l'amore universale e la compassione, e si rivolge a tutti gli esseri umani. L'etica antica, al contrario, privilegia un'élite e si concentra sull'armonia cosmica e sulla giustizia reciproca. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 497e99041b0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 聖書の倫理と古代の倫理はどのように異なりますか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答が正しいです。 -wrong_answers: - - 聖書の倫理は、人間を神の像として創造されたものとして無限の価値を与える一方で、古代の倫理は人間を宇宙に従属させます。 - - 聖書の倫理は隣人愛と慈悲を提唱するのに対し、古代の倫理は正義と相互性を強調します。 - - 聖書の倫理はすべての人に対処するのに対し、古代の倫理は選ばれた一握りの市民に限定されます。 -explanation: | - 聖書の倫理は、個人が神聖な尊厳を持つと価値づけ、普遍的な愛と慈悲を促進し、すべての人間に対処します。これは、エリートを特権化し、宇宙の調和と相互の正義に焦点を当てる古代の倫理と対照的です。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index eea6a321265..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 성서 윤리는 고대 윤리와 어떻게 다른가요? -answer: 다른 모든 답이 정답입니다. -wrong_answers: - - 성경적 윤리는 하나님의 형상대로 창조된 개인에게 무한한 가치를 부여하는 반면, 고대 윤리는 인간을 우주에 종속시킵니다. - - 성서 윤리는 이웃 사랑과 연민을 옹호하는 반면, 고대 윤리는 정의와 호혜를 강조합니다. - - 성서 윤리는 모든 인간을 대상으로 하는 반면, 고대 윤리는 엘리트 시민을 대상으로 합니다. -explanation: | - 성서 윤리는 엘리트에게 특권을 부여하고 우주적 조화와 호혜적 정의에 초점을 맞춘 고대 윤리와 달리 개인을 신성한 존엄성을 지닌 존재로 존중하고 보편적 사랑과 연민을 장려하며 모든 인간을 대상으로 합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e2229948aa1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvordan skiller bibelsk etikk seg fra antikkens etikk? -answer: Alle de andre svarene er korrekte. -wrong_answers: - - Bibelsk etikk tildeler individet uendelig verdi ettersom de er skapt i Guds bilde, mens antikkens etikk underordner mennesket til kosmos. - - Bibelsk etikk fremmer kjærlighet til neste og medfølelse, mens antikkens etikk legger vekt på rettferdighet og gjensidighet. - - Bibelsk etikk adresserer alle mennesker, mens antikkens etikk er forbeholdt en elitegruppe av borgere. -explanation: | - Bibelsk etikk verdsetter individet som bærer av guddommelig verdighet, fremmer universell kjærlighet og medfølelse, og adresserer alle mennesker, i motsetning til antikkens etikk, som privilegierer en elite og fokuserer på kosmisk harmoni og gjensidig rettferdighet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 54db27450ba..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Waarin verschilt de bijbelse ethiek van de oude ethiek? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - De Bijbelse ethiek kent een oneindige waarde toe aan het individu omdat het geschapen is naar het beeld van God, terwijl de oude ethiek de mens ondergeschikt maakt aan de kosmos. - - De Bijbelse ethiek pleit voor naastenliefde en mededogen, terwijl de oude ethiek de nadruk legt op rechtvaardigheid en wederkerigheid. - - De Bijbelse ethiek richt zich tot alle mensen, terwijl de oude ethiek voorbehouden is aan een elitegroep van burgers. -explanation: | - De Bijbelse ethiek waardeert het individu als drager van goddelijke waardigheid, bevordert universele liefde en mededogen en richt zich tot alle mensen, in tegenstelling tot de oude ethiek, die een elite bevoordeelt en zich richt op kosmische harmonie en wederzijdse rechtvaardigheid. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b94da1a796a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Czym różni się etyka biblijna od etyki starożytnej? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi są poprawne. -wrong_answers: - - Etyka biblijna przypisuje nieskończoną wartość jednostce, ponieważ jest ona stworzona na obraz Boga, podczas gdy etyka starożytna podporządkowuje człowieka kosmosowi. - - Etyka biblijna opowiada się za miłością bliźniego i współczuciem, podczas gdy etyka starożytna kładzie nacisk na sprawiedliwość i wzajemność. - - Etyka biblijna odnosi się do wszystkich ludzi, podczas gdy etyka starożytna jest zarezerwowana dla elitarnej grupy obywateli. -explanation: | - Etyka biblijna ceni jednostkę jako niosącą boską godność, promuje uniwersalną miłość i współczucie oraz odnosi się do wszystkich istot ludzkich, w przeciwieństwie do etyki starożytnej, która uprzywilejowuje elitę i koncentruje się na kosmicznej harmonii i wzajemnej sprawiedliwości. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 58735168bbe..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Como a ética bíblica difere da ética antiga? -answer: Todas as outras respostas estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - A ética bíblica atribui valor infinito ao indivíduo por serem criados à imagem de Deus, enquanto a ética antiga subordina o homem ao cosmos. - - A ética bíblica defende o amor ao próximo e a compaixão, enquanto a ética antiga enfatiza a justiça e a reciprocidade. - - A ética bíblica se dirige a todos os homens, enquanto a ética antiga é reservada para um grupo elitista de cidadãos. -explanation: | - A ética bíblica valoriza o indivíduo como portador de dignidade divina, promove o amor universal e a compaixão, e se dirige a todos os seres humanos, em contraste com a ética antiga, que privilegia uma elite e foca na harmonia cósmica e na justiça recíproca. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 150bd403c25..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni gute inyifato runtu yo muri Bibiliya itandukanye n’inyifato runtu ya kera? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Inyifato runtu yo muri Bibiliya iha agaciro katagira uko kangana umuntu ku giti ciwe uko yaremwe mw’ishusho y’Imana, mu gihe inyifato runtu ya kera yoshira umuntu munsi y’ibiriho vyose. - - Inyifato runtu yo muri Bibiliya irashigikira urukundo rw’umubanyi n’impuhwe, mu gihe inyifato runtu ya kera ishimika ku butungane no gusubizanya. - - Inyifato runtu yo muri Bibiliya ivuga ku bantu bose, mu gihe inyifato runtu ya kera yo igenewe umugwi w’abanyagihugu b’abanyacubahiro. -explanation: | - Inyifato runtu yo muri Bibiliya iha agaciro umuntu ku giti ciwe nk’uwufise icubahiro c’Imana, itera imbere urukundo n’impuhwe vyo kw’isi yose, kandi ibwira abantu bose, bitandukanye n’inyifato runtu ya kera, itanga agaciro ku bantu b’inkerebutsi kandi yibanda ku guhuza kw’isi n’ubutungane bwo gusubizanya. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 009475bae2f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: В чем различие между библейской этикой и древней этикой? -answer: Все другие ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Библейская этика придает бесконечную ценность индивидууму, поскольку он создан по образу и подобию Бога, в то время как древняя этика подчиняет человека космосу. - - Библейская этика выступает за любовь к ближнему и сострадание, в то время как древняя этика акцентирует внимание на справедливости и взаимности. - - Библейская этика обращена ко всем людям, в то время как древняя этика предназначена для элитной группы граждан. -explanation: | - Библейская этика ценит индивидуума как носителя божественного достоинства, продвигает универсальную любовь и сострадание, и обращается ко всем людям, в отличие от древней этики, которая привилегирует элиту и сосредотачивается на космической гармонии и взаимной справедливости. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ea2f6b9d99c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kako se biblijska etika razlikuje od drevne etike? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - Biblijska etika dodeljuje beskonačnu vrednost pojedincu jer je stvoren po Božjem obličju, dok antička etika podređuje čoveka kosmosu. - - Biblijska etika zagovara ljubav prema bližnjem i saosećanje, dok drevna etika naglašava pravdu i reciprocitet. - - Biblijska etika obraća se svim ljudima, dok je antička etika rezervisana za elitnu grupu građana. -explanation: | - Biblijska etika vrednuje pojedinca kao nosioca božanskog dostojanstva, promoviše univerzalnu ljubav i saosećanje, i obraća se svim ljudskim bićima, za razliku od antičke etike, koja privileguje elitu i fokusira se na kosmičku harmoniju i recipročnu pravdu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9b8f0d3aa82..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hur skiljer sig biblisk etik från antikens etik? -answer: Alla de andra svaren är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Den bibliska etiken tillmäter individen oändligt värde eftersom den är skapad till Guds avbild, medan den antika etiken underordnar människan kosmos. - - Den bibliska etiken förespråkar kärlek till nästan och medkänsla, medan den antika etiken betonar rättvisa och ömsesidighet. - - Den bibliska etiken vänder sig till alla människor, medan den antika etiken är förbehållen en elitgrupp av medborgare. -explanation: | - Biblisk etik värderar individen som bärare av gudomlig värdighet, främjar universell kärlek och medkänsla och vänder sig till alla människor, i motsats till antikens etik, som privilegierar en elit och fokuserar på kosmisk harmoni och ömsesidig rättvisa. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f0e1887451a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, maadili ya Biblia yanatofautianaje na maadili ya kale? -answer: Majibu mengine yote ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Maadili ya Kibiblia yanapeana thamani isiyo na kikomo kwa mtu binafsi kwani wameumbwa kwa mfano wa Mungu, ambapo maadili ya zamani huweka mwanadamu chini ya ulimwengu. - - Maadili ya Kibiblia yanatetea upendo kwa jirani na huruma, wakati maadili ya kale yanasisitiza haki na usawa. - - Maadili ya Kibiblia yanawahusu watu wote, ilhali maadili ya kale yametengwa kwa ajili ya kundi la watu wasomi. -explanation: | - Maadili ya Kibiblia yanamthamini mtu kama anayebeba utu wa kimungu, yanakuza upendo na huruma kwa wote, na yanawashughulikia wanadamu wote, tofauti na maadili ya kale, ambayo yanawapa upendeleo wasomi na kuzingatia maelewano ya ulimwengu na haki ya usawa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 54c8c84d1ca..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: จริยธรรมตามหลักพระคัมภีร์แตกต่างจากจริยธรรมโบราณอย่างไร? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมดถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - จริยธรรมในพระคัมภีร์ให้คุณค่าอันไม่มีที่สิ้นสุดแก่บุคคลเนื่องจากพวกเขาถูกสร้างขึ้นตามภาพลักษณ์ของพระเจ้า ในขณะที่จริยธรรมโบราณให้ความสำคัญกับมนุษย์รองจากจักรวาล - - จริยธรรมในพระคัมภีร์สนับสนุนความรักต่อเพื่อนบ้านและความเมตตา ในขณะที่จริยธรรมโบราณเน้นความยุติธรรมและการตอบแทน - - จริยธรรมในพระคัมภีร์กล่าวถึงมนุษย์ทุกคน ในขณะที่จริยธรรมโบราณสงวนไว้สำหรับกลุ่มพลเมืองชั้นยอดเท่านั้น -explanation: | - จริยธรรมในพระคัมภีร์ให้คุณค่าต่อปัจเจกบุคคลในฐานะที่มีศักดิ์ศรีอันศักดิ์สิทธิ์ ส่งเสริมความรักและความเมตตาสากล และมุ่งเน้นไปที่มนุษย์ทุกคน ซึ่งแตกต่างจากจริยธรรมโบราณที่ให้สิทธิพิเศษแก่ชนชั้นสูงและมุ่งเน้นไปที่ความกลมกลืนของจักรวาลและความยุติธรรมซึ่งกันและกัน -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bd0d5fef747..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kutsal Kitap etiği antik etikten nasıl farklıdır? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - İncil etiği, Tanrı'nın suretinde yaratıldıkları için bireye sonsuz değer atfederken, antik etik insanı kozmosa tabi kılar. - - İncil etiği komşu sevgisini ve merhameti savunurken, antik etik adalet ve karşılıklılığı vurgular. - - Kutsal Kitap etiği tüm insanlara hitap ederken, antik etik elit bir vatandaş grubuna ayrılmıştır. -explanation: | - Kutsal Kitap etiği bireye ilahi haysiyete sahip olduğu için değer verir, evrensel sevgi ve şefkati teşvik eder ve elit bir kesime ayrıcalık tanıyan ve kozmik uyum ve karşılıklı adalete odaklanan antik etiğin aksine tüm insanlara hitap eder. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fafb6522a0a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Đạo đức trong Kinh Thánh khác với đạo đức cổ đại như thế nào? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Đạo đức trong Kinh Thánh gán giá trị vô hạn cho cá nhân vì họ được tạo ra theo hình ảnh của Chúa, trong khi đạo đức cổ đại xếp đặt con người dưới vũ trụ. - - Đạo đức trong Kinh Thánh ủng hộ tình yêu thương láng giềng và lòng trắc ẩn, trong khi đạo đức cổ đại nhấn mạnh công bằng và sự đền đáp. - - Đạo đức trong Kinh Thánh đề cập đến tất cả mọi người, trong khi đạo đức cổ đại chỉ dành cho một nhóm người ưu tú. -explanation: | - Đạo đức trong Kinh Thánh coi trọng giá trị của cá nhân như mang phẩm giá thần thánh, thúc đẩy tình yêu thương và lòng trắc ẩn phổ quát, và hướng đến tất cả con người, trái ngược với đạo đức cổ đại, nơi ưu tiên cho một tầng lớp ưu tú và tập trung vào hòa hợp vũ trụ và công bằng tương hỗ. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 121a2b6e5c4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 圣经伦理学与古代伦理学有何不同？ -answer: 所有其他答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 圣经伦理学认为个体具有无限价值，因为他们是按照上帝的形象创造的，而古代伦理学则将人类从属于宇宙。 - - 圣经伦理学倡导邻里之爱和同情心，而古代伦理学强调正义和互惠。 - - 圣经伦理学面向所有人，而古代伦理学仅为精英阶层的公民所保留。 -explanation: - 圣经伦理学重视个体作为具有神圣尊严的存在，提倡普遍的爱和同情心，并面向所有人类，与之形成对比的是，古代伦理学特权精英，侧重于宇宙和谐和互惠正义。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f8dbaafe84b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/055/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 聖經倫理與古代倫理有何不同？ -answer: 其他答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 聖經倫理學賦予個人無限的價值，因為他們是按照神的形象被創造的，而古代倫理學則讓人從屬於宇宙。 - - 聖經倫理主張愛護鄰居和同情心，而古代倫理則強調正義和互惠。 - - 聖經倫理針對的是所有人，而古代倫理只針對精英公民。 -explanation: | - 聖經倫理學珍視個人擁有神聖的尊嚴，提倡博愛與慈悲，並針對全人類，這與古代倫理學形成對比，古代倫理學給予精英特權，並著重於宇宙和諧與互惠的正義。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 586de123a26..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какъв е обхватът на етичната революция, предизвикана от Библията? -answer: Всички останали отговори са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Тя води до нова концепция за справедливост, основана на равенство и състрадание. - - Тя предизвиква пасивното приемане на страданието и насърчава действия за неговото облекчаване. - - Той полага основите на моралния универсализъм, признаващ равната стойност на всяко човешко същество. -explanation: | - Библията извършва етична революция, като предлага концепции за справедливост, основани на равенство и състрадание, оценява действия срещу страданието и полага основите на морален универсализъм, според който всеки човек притежава присъщо достойнство. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d3ff55f4c4d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je rozsah etické revoluce, kterou přinesla Bible? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Přináší nový koncept spravedlnosti založený na rovnosti a soucitu. - - Zpochybňuje pasivní přijetí utrpení a podporuje akci k jeho zmírnění. - - Klade základy pro morální univerzalismus uznávající rovnou hodnotu každého člověka. -explanation: | - Bible zavedla etickou revoluci tím, že navrhla koncepty spravedlnosti založené na rovnosti a soucitu, ocenila akci proti utrpení a položila základy pro morální univerzalismus, kde každý jedinec má vnitřní důstojnost. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 803d98d9198..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist der Umfang der ethischen Revolution, die durch die Bibel ausgelöst wurde? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Sie führt zu einem neuen Konzept der Gerechtigkeit, basierend auf Gleichheit und Mitgefühl. - - Sie stellt die passive Akzeptanz von Leiden in Frage und fördert Maßnahmen zu dessen Linderung. - - Sie legt den Grundstein für einen moralischen Universalismus, der den gleichen Wert jedes Menschen anerkennt. -explanation: | - Die Bibel führte eine ethische Revolution ein, indem sie Konzepte der Gerechtigkeit auf der Basis von Gleichheit und Mitgefühl vorschlug, Maßnahmen gegen Leiden wertschätzte und die Grundlagen für einen moralischen Universalismus legte, in dem jeder Einzelne eine intrinsische Würde besitzt. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/en.yml index b97f6a4239a..be8ba4e0c61 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the scope of the ethical revolution brought about by the Bible? -answer: All the other answers are correct. +answer: It lays the foundation for a moral universalism recognizing the equal value of every human being. wrong_answers: - It leads to a new concept of justice based on equality and compassion. + - It establishes a set of dietary and ritual laws that govern daily life. - It challenges the passive acceptance of suffering and encourages action to alleviate it. - - It lays the foundation for a moral universalism recognizing the equal value of every human being. explanation: | - The Bible introduced an ethical revolution by proposing concepts of justice based on equality and compassion, valuing action against suffering, and laying the foundations for a moral universalism where each individual possesses intrinsic dignity. + The Bible introduced a moral universalism recognizing the equal value of every human being, based on the idea that all are created in God's image, which transformed the relationship to evil and suffering and laid the groundwork for universal human rights. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8750aa0ba97..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es el alcance de la revolución ética provocada por la Biblia? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - Conduce a un nuevo concepto de justicia basado en la igualdad y la compasión. - - Desafía la aceptación pasiva del sufrimiento y fomenta la acción para aliviarlo. - - Establece las bases para un universalismo moral que reconoce el valor igual de cada ser humano. -explanation: | - La Biblia introdujo una revolución ética al proponer conceptos de justicia basados en la igualdad y la compasión, valorando la acción contra el sufrimiento y estableciendo las bases para un universalismo moral donde cada individuo posee una dignidad intrínseca. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 10e5902780f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Piibli poolt esile kutsutud eetilise revolutsiooni ulatus? -answer: Kõik teised vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - See viib uue õigluse kontseptsioonini, mis põhineb võrdsusel ja kaastundel. - - See seab kahtluse alla kannatuste passiivse aktsepteerimise ja julgustab tegutsema nende leevendamiseks. - - See loob aluse moraalsele universalismile, tunnistades iga inimese võrdset väärtust. -explanation: | - Piibel tõi kaasa eetilise revolutsiooni, pakkudes välja õigluse kontseptsioone, mis põhinevad võrdsusel ja kaastundel, väärtustades tegevust kannatuste vastu ning rajades aluse moraalsele universalismile, kus igal üksikisikul on sisemine väärikus. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e5c6928f37f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: دامنه انقلاب اخلاقی که توسط کتاب مقدس به وجود آمده چیست؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - این به یک مفهوم جدید از عدالت بر اساس برابری و شفقت منجر می‌شود. - - این به چالش کشیدن پذیرش منفعلانه رنج و تشویق به اقدام برای کاهش آن است. - - این پایه‌ای برای یک جهان‌شمولی اخلاقی است که ارزش برابر هر انسان را به رسمیت می‌شناسد. -explanation: | - کتاب مقدس یک انقلاب اخلاقی را با پیشنهاد مفاهیم عدالت بر اساس برابری و همدلی معرفی کرد، اقدام علیه رنج را ارزشمند دانست و پایه‌های یک جهان‌شمولی اخلاقی را بنا نهاد که در آن هر فرد دارای کرامت ذاتی است. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f84112e781b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Raamatun tuoman eettisen vallankumouksen laajuus? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - Se johtaa uuteen oikeudenmukaisuuden käsitteeseen, joka perustuu tasa-arvoon ja myötätuntoon. - - Se haastaa kärsimyksen passiivisen hyväksymisen ja kannustaa toimintaan sen lievittämiseksi. - - Se luo perustan moraaliselle universalismille, joka tunnustaa jokaisen ihmisen yhtäläisen arvon. -explanation: | - Raamattu toi esille eettisen vallankumouksen ehdottamalla oikeudenmukaisuuden käsitteitä, jotka perustuvat tasa-arvoon ja myötätuntoon, arvostamalla toimintaa kärsimyksen vastustamiseksi ja luomalla perustan moraaliselle universalismille, jossa jokaisella yksilöllä on sisäsyntyinen arvokkuus. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fr.yml index c9aaaa1b45c..f26718c02f2 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la portée de la révolution éthique apportée par la Bible ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses sont correctes. +answer: Elle pose les fondements d'un universalisme moral reconnaissant la valeur égale de chaque être humain. wrong_answers: - Elle conduit à une nouvelle conception de la justice basée sur l'égalité et la compassion. + - Elle établit un ensemble de lois alimentaires et rituelles régissant la vie quotidienne. - Elle remet en question l'acceptation passive de la souffrance et encourage l'action pour la soulager. - - Elle pose les bases d'un universalisme moral reconnaissant la valeur égale de chaque être humain. explanation: | - La Bible a introduit une révolution éthique en proposant des concepts de justice fondés sur l'égalité et la compassion, en valorisant l'action contre la souffrance, et en posant les bases d'un universalisme moral où chaque individu possède une dignité intrinsèque. -reviewed: true + La Bible a introduit un universalisme moral reconnaissant la valeur égale de chaque être humain, fondé sur l'idée que tous sont créés à l'image de Dieu, ce qui a transformé le rapport au mal et à la souffrance et posé les bases des droits de l'homme universels. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 941d40eeaa5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: बाइबल द्वारा लाई गई नैतिक क्रांति का दायरा क्या है? -answer: बाकी सारे जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - यह समानता और दया पर आधारित न्याय की एक नई अवधारणा की ओर ले जाता है। - - यह दुख को चुपचाप स्वीकार करने को चुनौती देता है और उसे कम करने के लिए कदम उठाने को प्रोत्साहित करता है। - - यह हर इंसान की बराबर कीमत को मानने वाले नैतिक सार्वभौमिकता की बुनियाद रखता है। -explanation: | - बाइबल ने एक नैतिक क्रांति पेश की, जिसमें समानता और करुणा पर आधारित न्याय के विचार, दुख के खिलाफ कार्रवाई को महत्व देने, और एक नैतिक सार्वभौमिकता की नींव रखी जहाँ हर व्यक्ति का अपना आंतरिक मूल्य होता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e9860e6fac8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa cakupan revolusi etika yang dibawa oleh Alkitab? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya benar. -wrong_answers: - - Ini mengarah pada konsep keadilan baru yang berdasarkan kesetaraan dan kasih sayang. - - Ini menantang penerimaan pasif terhadap penderitaan dan mendorong tindakan untuk meringankannya. - - Ini meletakkan dasar untuk universalisme moral yang mengakui nilai setara setiap manusia. -explanation: | - Alkitab memperkenalkan revolusi etika dengan mengusulkan konsep keadilan yang berdasarkan kesetaraan dan kasih sayang, menghargai tindakan melawan penderitaan, dan meletakkan dasar-dasar untuk universalisme moral di mana setiap individu memiliki martabat intrinsik. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4525d1b1dc1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è l'ambito della rivoluzione etica portata dalla Bibbia? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - Porta a un nuovo concetto di giustizia basato sull'uguaglianza e sulla compassione. - - Mette in discussione l'accettazione passiva della sofferenza e incoraggia l'azione per alleviarla. - - Pone le basi per un universalismo morale che riconosce il valore uguale di ogni essere umano. -explanation: | - La Bibbia ha introdotto una rivoluzione etica proponendo concetti di giustizia basati sull'uguaglianza e sulla compassione, valorizzando l'azione contro la sofferenza e gettando le fondamenta per un universalismo morale dove ogni individuo possiede una dignità intrinseca. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1e11ed8404f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 聖書によってもたらされた倫理革命の範囲は何ですか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答が正しいです。 -wrong_answers: - - 平等と慈悲に基づく新しい正義の概念を導入します。 - - 苦しみの受動的な受け入れに挑戦し、それを軽減するための行動を促進します。 - - すべての人間が平等な価値を持つと認識する道徳的普遍主義の基礎を築きます。 -explanation: | - 聖書は、平等と慈悲に基づく正義の概念、苦しみに対する行動の価値、そして個々の人間が固有の尊厳を持つという道徳的普遍主義の基礎を築くことを提案することによって、倫理革命を導入しました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 064713be69c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 성경이 가져온 윤리적 혁명의 범위는 어디까지인가요? -answer: 다른 모든 정답이 맞습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 평등과 연민에 기반한 새로운 정의의 개념으로 이어집니다. - - 고통에 대한 수동적인 수용에 도전하고 고통을 완화하기 위한 행동을 장려합니다. - - 이는 모든 인간의 동등한 가치를 인정하는 도덕적 보편주의의 토대를 마련합니다. -explanation: | - 성서는 평등과 연민에 기반한 정의의 개념을 제시하고, 고통에 대한 행동을 중시하며, 각 개인이 내재적 존엄성을 지닌다는 도덕적 보편주의의 토대를 마련함으로써 윤리적 혁명을 일으켰습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fec3263147e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er omfanget av den etiske revolusjonen som Bibelen førte med seg? -answer: Alle de andre svarene er riktige. -wrong_answers: - - Den fører til et nytt konsept av rettferdighet basert på likhet og medfølelse. - - Den utfordrer den passive aksepten av lidelse og oppmuntrer til handling for å lindre den. - - Den legger grunnlaget for en moralsk universalisme som anerkjenner lik verdi hos hvert enkelt menneske. -explanation: | - Bibelen introduserte en etisk revolusjon ved å foreslå konsepter for rettferdighet basert på likhet og medfølelse, verdsetting av handling mot lidelse, og ved å legge grunnlaget for en moralsk universalisme hvor hvert individ besitter en iboende verdighet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 68c64859f34..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de reikwijdte van de ethische revolutie die de Bijbel teweeg heeft gebracht? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - Het leidt tot een nieuw concept van rechtvaardigheid gebaseerd op gelijkheid en mededogen. - - Het daagt uit tot passieve aanvaarding van lijden en moedigt aan tot actie om het te verlichten. - - Het legt de basis voor een moreel universalisme dat de gelijke waarde van elk menselijk wezen erkent. -explanation: | - De Bijbel introduceerde een ethische revolutie door concepten van rechtvaardigheid voor te stellen die gebaseerd zijn op gelijkheid en mededogen, die actie tegen lijden waarderen en die de basis leggen voor een moreel universalisme waarin elk individu intrinsieke waardigheid bezit. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 575af50fca2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest zakres rewolucji etycznej wywołanej przez Biblię? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi są poprawne. -wrong_answers: - - Prowadzi to do nowej koncepcji sprawiedliwości opartej na równości i współczuciu. - - Rzuca wyzwanie biernej akceptacji cierpienia i zachęca do działania w celu jego złagodzenia. - - Kładzie podwaliny pod moralny uniwersalizm uznający równą wartość każdej istoty ludzkiej. -explanation: | - Biblia wprowadziła rewolucję etyczną, proponując koncepcje sprawiedliwości oparte na równości i współczuciu, doceniając działania przeciwko cierpieniu i kładąc podwaliny pod moralny uniwersalizm, w którym każda jednostka posiada wewnętrzną godność. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2384704db41..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é o escopo da revolução ética trazida pela Bíblia? -answer: Todas as outras respostas estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - Ela leva a um novo conceito de justiça baseado em igualdade e compaixão. - - Desafia a aceitação passiva do sofrimento e incentiva a ação para aliviá-lo. - - Estabelece a base para um universalismo moral reconhecendo o valor igual de cada ser humano. -explanation: | - A Bíblia introduziu uma revolução ética ao propor conceitos de justiça baseados em igualdade e compaixão, valorizando a ação contra o sofrimento e estabelecendo as bases para um universalismo moral onde cada indivíduo possui dignidade intrínseca. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d7acd2ae109..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: None ihinduka ry’inyifato runtu ryazanywe na Bibiliya ringana gute? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Bishikana ku ciyumviro gishasha c’ubutungane gishingiye ku kungana n’impuhwe. - - Riratera ingorane ukwemera imibabaro ata co ukora kandi rikaremesha gukora kugira ngo rigabanuke. - - Rishinga umushinge w’ubumwe bw’abantu bose mu vy’inyifato runtu bwemera agaciro kangana k’umuntu wese. -explanation: | - Bibiliya yarashizeho ihinduka ry’inyifato runtu mu gutanga ivyiyumviro vy’ubutungane bishingiye ku kungana n’impuhwe, guha agaciro igikorwa co kurwanya imibabaro, no gushinga imishinge y’ubumwe bw’abantu bose mu vy’inyifato runtu aho umuntu wese afise icubahiro c’imbere mu mutima. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f92500b63d7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какова сфера этической революции, принесенной Библией? -answer: Все другие ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Она приводит к новому пониманию справедливости, основанному на равенстве и сострадании. - - Она оспаривает пассивное принятие страданий и поощряет действия для их облегчения. - - Она заложила основы для морального универсализма, признающего равную ценность каждого человека. -explanation: | - Библия представила этическую революцию, предложив концепции справедливости, основанные на равенстве и сострадании, ценя действия против страданий и заложив основы для морального универсализма, где каждый индивид обладает внутренним достоинством. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2d5a0c3607e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kakav je obim etičke revolucije koju je donela Biblija? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - To vodi do novog koncepta pravde zasnovanog na jednakosti i saosećanju. - - Izaziva pasivno prihvatanje patnje i podstiče akciju za njeno ublažavanje. - - Postavlja temelje za moralni univerzalizam koji prepoznaje jednaku vrednost svakog ljudskog bića. -explanation: | - Biblija je uvela etičku revoluciju predlažući koncepte pravde zasnovane na jednakosti i saosećanju, vrednujući akciju protiv patnje i postavljajući temelje za moralni univerzalizam gde svaka individua poseduje intrinzično dostojanstvo. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 78a3d4b130c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är omfattningen av den etiska revolution som Bibeln har åstadkommit? -answer: Alla de andra svaren är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Det leder till en ny syn på rättvisa som bygger på jämlikhet och medkänsla. - - Den utmanar det passiva accepterandet av lidande och uppmuntrar till handling för att lindra det. - - Den lägger grunden för en moralisk universalism som erkänner varje människas lika värde. -explanation: | - Bibeln introducerade en etisk revolution genom att föreslå begrepp som rättvisa baserad på jämlikhet och medkänsla, värdesätta åtgärder mot lidande och lägga grunden för en moralisk universalism där varje individ har en inneboende värdighet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7f97ebdaacd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, ni upeo gani wa mapinduzi ya kimaadili yanayoletwa na Biblia? -answer: Majibu mengine yote ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Inaleta dhana mpya ya haki inayojikita kwenye usawa na huruma. - - Inachangamoto ya kukubalika kwa mateso na inahimiza hatua ya kupunguza. - - Inaweka msingi wa umoja wa kimaadili unaotambua thamani sawa ya kila mwanadamu. -explanation: | - Biblia ilianzisha mapinduzi ya kimaadili kwa kupendekeza dhana za haki zenye msingi wa usawa na huruma, kuthamini hatua dhidi ya mateso, na kuweka misingi ya ulimwengu mzima wa maadili ambapo kila mtu ana heshima ya ndani. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index df151bbca2b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ขอบเขตของการปฏิวัติทางจริยธรรมที่เกิดจากพระคัมภีร์คืออะไร? -answer: คำตอบอื่นๆ ทั้งหมดถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - มันนำไปสู่แนวคิดใหม่ของความยุติธรรมที่มีพื้นฐานมาจากความเสมอภาคและความเมตตา - - มันท้าทายการยอมรับความทุกข์ทรมานอย่างเฉยเมยและกระตุ้นให้เกิดการกระทำเพื่อลดความทุกข์นั้น - - มันวางรากฐานสำหรับสากลนิยมทางศีลธรรมที่ยอมรับคุณค่าเท่าเทียมกันของมนุษย์ทุกคน -explanation: | - พระคัมภีร์ได้แนะนำการปฏิวัติทางจริยธรรมโดยเสนอแนวคิดเรื่องความยุติธรรมที่ตั้งอยู่บนความเสมอภาคและความเมตตา ให้คุณค่ากับการกระทำเพื่อต่อต้านความทุกข์ทรมาน และวางรากฐานสำหรับสากลนิยมทางศีลธรรมที่แต่ละบุคคลมีศักดิ์ศรีในตัวเอง -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5124e1c7264..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kutsal Kitap'ın getirdiği etik devrimin kapsamı nedir? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - Eşitlik ve merhamete dayalı yeni bir adalet kavramına yol açar. - - Acının pasif bir şekilde kabullenilmesine meydan okur ve acıyı hafifletmek için harekete geçmeyi teşvik eder. - - Her insanın eşit değerde olduğunu kabul eden ahlaki bir evrenselciliğin temelini atar. -explanation: | - Kutsal Kitap, eşitlik ve merhamete dayalı adalet kavramlarını önererek, acıya karşı eyleme değer vererek ve her bireyin içsel haysiyete sahip olduğu ahlaki bir evrenselciliğin temellerini atarak etik bir devrim yaratmıştır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 72a6a32d3bb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Phạm vi của cuộc cách mạng đạo đức do Kinh Thánh mang lại là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Nó dẫn đến một khái niệm mới về công lý dựa trên sự bình đẳng và lòng thương xót. - - Nó thách thức sự chấp nhận thụ động đối với sự đau khổ và khuyến khích hành động để giảm nhẹ nó. - - Nó đặt nền móng cho một chủ nghĩa phổ quát về đạo đức, công nhận giá trị bình đẳng của mỗi con người. -explanation: | - Kinh Thánh đã giới thiệu một cuộc cách mạng đạo đức bằng cách đề xuất các khái niệm về công lý dựa trên sự bình đẳng và lòng thương xót, đánh giá cao hành động chống lại sự đau khổ, và đặt nền móng cho một chủ nghĩa phổ quát về đạo đức nơi mỗi cá nhân đều sở hữu phẩm giá nội tại. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0dcb7fb41e5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 圣经引发的伦理革命的范围是什么？ -answer: 所有其他答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它引领了一个基于平等和同情的新正义观念。 - - 它挑战了对苦难的被动接受，并鼓励采取行动以减轻苦难。 - - 它为道德普遍主义奠定了基础，认识到每个人都具有平等的价值。 -explanation: | - 圣经通过提出基于平等和同情的正义观念，重视对抗苦难的行动，并为每个个体拥有内在尊严的道德普遍主义奠定了基础，引入了一场伦理革命。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cbe3ad6c048..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/056/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 聖經所帶來的倫理革命的範圍是什麼？ -answer: 其他答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它引導出基於平等與慈悲的新正義概念。 - - 它挑戰被動地接受痛苦，並鼓勵採取行動來減輕痛苦。 - - 它奠定了道德普遍主義的基礎，承認每個人的平等價值。 -explanation: | - 聖經》引進了一場倫理革命，提出了基於平等和慈悲的正義概念，重視對抗痛苦的行動，並為每個人都擁有固有尊嚴的道德普世主義奠定了基礎。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 21afce5dee4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какво е било влиянието на школата в Саламанка върху развитието на модерната мисъл? -answer: Всички останали отговори са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Тя допринася за появата на международното право и признаването на универсалните права на човека. - - Той поставя основите на съвременната политическа философия, като утвърждава разделението на властите и народния суверенитет. - - Той оказва влияние върху научната мисъл, като насърчава експерименталния метод и рационализма. -explanation: | - Училището в Саламанка оказва огромно влияние върху съвременната мисъл, като полага основите на международното право, защитава универсалните права на човека и установява основни принципи на политическата философия и научното мислене. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 010a6cbbb4c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký byl vliv Školy ze Salamanky na vývoj moderního myšlení? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Přispěla k vzniku mezinárodního práva a uznání univerzálních lidských práv. - - Položila základy moderní politické filozofie tvrzením o rozdělení mocí a lidové suverenitě. - - Ovlivnila vědecké myšlení podporou experimentální metody a racionalismu. -explanation: | - Škola ze Salamanky měla hluboký vliv na moderní myšlení, položila základy pro mezinárodní právo, prosazovala univerzální lidská práva a stanovila základní principy pro politickou filozofii a vědecké myšlení. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 28f3ca007d3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Welchen Einfluss hatte die Schule von Salamanca auf die Entwicklung des modernen Denkens? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Sie trug zur Entstehung des Völkerrechts und der Anerkennung universeller Menschenrechte bei. - - Sie legte die Grundlagen der modernen politischen Philosophie fest, indem sie die Gewaltenteilung und die Volkssouveränität betonte. - - Sie beeinflusste das wissenschaftliche Denken, indem sie die experimentelle Methode und den Rationalismus förderte. -explanation: | - Die Schule von Salamanca hatte einen tiefgreifenden Einfluss auf das moderne Denken, legte den Grundstein für das Völkerrecht, setzte sich für universelle Menschenrechte ein und etablierte grundlegende Prinzipien für die politische Philosophie und das wissenschaftliche Denken. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/en.yml index 5f1e3de4c6f..4de8781f772 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What was the influence of the School of Salamanca on the development of modern thought? -answer: All the other answers are correct. +answer: It contributed to the emergence of international law and the recognition of universal human rights. wrong_answers: - - It contributed to the emergence of international law and the recognition of universal human rights. - It laid the foundations of modern political philosophy by asserting the separation of powers and popular sovereignty. + - It promoted the spread of mercantilism across European trading empires. - It influenced scientific thought by encouraging the experimental method and rationalism. explanation: | - The School of Salamanca had a profound influence on modern thought, laying the groundwork for international law, advocating for universal human rights, and establishing fundamental principles for political philosophy and scientific thinking. + The School of Salamanca's most significant contribution was the emergence of international law and the recognition of universal human rights, notably through Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomeo de Las Casas who defended the rights of Indigenous peoples based on natural law. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9cfacebf2f3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál fue la influencia de la Escuela de Salamanca en el desarrollo del pensamiento moderno? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - Contribuyó al surgimiento del derecho internacional y el reconocimiento de los derechos humanos universales. - - Sentó las bases de la filosofía política moderna al afirmar la separación de poderes y la soberanía popular. - - Influyó en el pensamiento científico al fomentar el método experimental y el racionalismo. -explanation: | - La Escuela de Salamanca tuvo una profunda influencia en el pensamiento moderno, sentando las bases para el derecho internacional, abogando por los derechos humanos universales y estableciendo principios fundamentales para la filosofía política y el pensamiento científico. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1db9b2f416a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Milline oli Salamanca kooli mõju kaasaegsele mõtlemisele? -answer: Kõik teised vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - See aitas kaasa rahvusvahelise õiguse tekkimisele ja universaalsete inimõiguste tunnustamisele. - - See pani aluse kaasaegsele poliitilisele filosoofiale, väites võimude lahusust ja rahva suveräänsust. - - See mõjutas teaduslikku mõtlemist, julgustades eksperimentaalseid meetodeid ja ratsionalismi. -explanation: | - Salamanca koolil oli sügav mõju kaasaegsele mõtlemisele, pannes aluse rahvusvahelisele õigusele, propageerides universaalseid inimõigusi ning kehtestades põhimõtted poliitilisele filosoofiale ja teaduslikule mõtlemisele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7ceccc43ce8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: تأثیر مدرسه سالامانکا بر توسعه تفکر مدرن چه بود؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - این به ظهور حقوق بین‌الملل و شناسایی حقوق بشر جهانی کمک کرد. - - این پایه‌های فلسفه سیاسی مدرن را با تأکید بر تفکیک قوا و حاکمیت مردمی بنا نهاد. - - این بر تفکر علمی با تشویق روش تجربی و عقل‌گرایی تأثیر گذاشت. -explanation: | - مکتب سالامانکا تأثیر عمیقی بر تفکر مدرن داشت، پایه‌های حقوق بین‌الملل را بنا نهاد، از حقوق بشر جهانی حمایت کرد و اصول اساسی فلسفه سیاسی و تفکر علمی را ایجاد کرد. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7de9818bb94..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä oli Salamancan koulukunnan vaikutus modernin ajattelun kehitykseen? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - Se edesauttoi kansainvälisen oikeuden syntymistä ja yleismaailmallisten ihmisoikeuksien tunnustamista. - - Se loi perustan modernille poliittiselle filosofialle korostamalla vallan erottelua ja kansan suvereniteettia. - - Se vaikutti tieteelliseen ajatteluun kannustamalla kokeellista menetelmää ja rationalismia. -explanation: | - Salamancan koulukunnalla oli syvällinen vaikutus moderniin ajatteluun. Se loi perustan kansainväliselle oikeudelle, ajoi yleismaailmallisten ihmisoikeuksien asiaa ja vakiinnutti perusperiaatteet poliittiselle filosofialle sekä tieteelliselle ajattelulle. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fr.yml index c638888b697..8f5b60449bc 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle a été l'influence de l'école de Salamanque dans le développement de la pensée moderne ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses sont correctes. +answer: Elle a contribué à l'émergence du droit international et à la reconnaissance des droits de l'homme universels. wrong_answers: - - Elle a contribué à l'émergence du droit international et à la reconnaissance des droits universels de l'homme. - Elle a posé les bases de la philosophie politique moderne en affirmant la séparation des pouvoirs et la souveraineté populaire. + - Elle a promu la diffusion du mercantilisme à travers les empires commerciaux européens. - Elle a influencé la pensée scientifique en encourageant la méthode expérimentale et le rationalisme. explanation: | - L'école de Salamanque a eu une influence profonde sur la pensée moderne, en jetant les bases du droit international, en défendant les droits humains universels, et en posant des principes fondamentaux pour la philosophie politique et la pensée scientifique. -reviewed: true + La contribution la plus significative de l'école de Salamanque a été l'émergence du droit international et la reconnaissance des droits de l'homme universels, notamment à travers Francisco de Vitoria et Bartolomeo de Las Casas qui ont défendu les droits des peuples autochtones sur la base du droit naturel. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 560dc0d3be2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: सलामांका स्कूल का आधुनिक विचारधारा के विकास पर क्या प्रभाव पड़ा? -answer: बाकी सारे जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - इसने अंतर्राष्ट्रीय कानून के उदय और सार्वभौमिक मानव अधिकारों की मान्यता में योगदान दिया। - - इसने अधिकारों के पृथक्करण और लोकप्रिय संप्रभुता को स्थापित करके आधुनिक राजनीतिक दर्शन की नींव रखी। - - इसने वैज्ञानिक सोच को प्रभावित किया, प्रयोगात्मक तरीके और तर्कवाद को बढ़ावा देकर। -explanation: | - सालामांका स्कूल का आधुनिक विचारधारा पर गहरा असर पड़ा। इसने अंतरराष्ट्रीय कानून की नींव रखी, सार्वभौमिक मानवाधिकारों की वकालत की, और राजनीतिक दर्शन तथा वैज्ञानिक सोच के मूल सिद्धांत स्थापित किए। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4f39de18f68..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa pengaruh Sekolah Salamanca terhadap pengembangan pemikiran modern? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya benar. -wrong_answers: - - Ini berkontribusi pada munculnya hukum internasional dan pengakuan terhadap hak asasi manusia universal. - - Ini meletakkan dasar-dasar filsafat politik modern dengan menegaskan pemisahan kekuasaan dan kedaulatan rakyat. - - Ini mempengaruhi pemikiran ilmiah dengan mendorong metode eksperimental dan rasionalisme. -explanation: | - Sekolah Salamanca memiliki pengaruh mendalam terhadap pemikiran modern, meletakkan dasar untuk hukum internasional, mendukung hak asasi manusia universal, dan menetapkan prinsip-prinsip fundamental untuk filsafat politik dan pemikiran ilmiah. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1ebc9645fd0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è stata l'influenza della Scuola di Salamanca sullo sviluppo del pensiero moderno? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - Ha contribuito all'emergere del diritto internazionale e al riconoscimento dei diritti umani universali. - - Ha gettato le basi della filosofia politica moderna affermando la separazione dei poteri e la sovranità popolare. - - Ha influenzato il pensiero scientifico incoraggiando il metodo sperimentale e il razionalismo. -explanation: | - La Scuola di Salamanca ha avuto una profonda influenza sul pensiero moderno, gettando le basi per il diritto internazionale, promuovendo i diritti umani universali e stabilendo principi fondamentali per la filosofia politica e il pensiero scientifico. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9625f6dec7f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: サラマンカ学派が近代思想の発展に与えた影響は何ですか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答が正しいです。 -wrong_answers: - - 国際法の出現と普遍的人権の認識に貢献した。 - - 権力の分離と国民主権を主張することで、近代政治哲学の基礎を築いた。 - - 実験的方法と合理主義を奨励することで、科学的思考に影響を与えた。 -explanation: | - サラマンカ学派は近代思想に深い影響を与え、国際法の基礎を築き、普遍的人権を擁護し、政治哲学と科学的思考のための基本原則を確立しました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1301de27323..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 살라망카 학파가 근대 사상의 발전에 미친 영향은 무엇인가요? -answer: 다른 모든 정답이 맞습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 이는 국제법의 출현과 보편적 인권의 인정에 기여했습니다. - - 삼권 분립과 국민 주권을 주장하며 현대 정치 철학의 토대를 마련했습니다. - - 실험적 방법과 합리주의를 장려하여 과학적 사고에 영향을 미쳤습니다. -explanation: | - 살라망카 학파는 국제법의 토대를 마련하고 보편적 인권을 옹호하며 정치 철학과 과학적 사고의 기본 원칙을 확립하는 등 근대 사상에 지대한 영향을 미쳤습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 41ad4d152e0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva var innflytelsen fra Skolen i Salamanca på utviklingen av moderne tankegang? -answer: Alle de andre svarene er riktige. -wrong_answers: - - Den bidro til fremveksten av internasjonal rett og anerkjennelsen av universelle menneskerettigheter. - - Den la grunnlaget for moderne politisk filosofi ved å hevde maktens tredeling og folkesuverenitet. - - Den påvirket vitenskapelig tankegang ved å oppmuntre til den eksperimentelle metoden og rasjonalisme. -explanation: | - Skolen i Salamanca hadde en dyptgående innflytelse på moderne tankegang, ved å legge grunnlaget for internasjonal rett, fremme universelle menneskerettigheter, og etablere grunnleggende prinsipper for politisk filosofi og vitenskapelig tenkning. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 418ca607c68..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat was de invloed van de School van Salamanca op de ontwikkeling van het moderne denken? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - Het droeg bij aan het ontstaan van internationaal recht en de erkenning van universele mensenrechten. - - Het legde de basis voor de moderne politieke filosofie door de scheiding der machten en volkssoevereiniteit te bevestigen. - - Het beïnvloedde het wetenschappelijke denken door de experimentele methode en het rationalisme aan te moedigen. -explanation: | - De School van Salamanca had een grote invloed op het moderne denken, legde de basis voor het internationale recht, pleitte voor universele mensenrechten en stelde fundamentele principes vast voor politieke filosofie en wetenschappelijk denken. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 747ee631601..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki był wpływ Szkoły w Salamance na rozwój nowoczesnej myśli? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi są poprawne. -wrong_answers: - - Przyczyniła się do powstania prawa międzynarodowego i uznania powszechnych praw człowieka. - - Położył on podwaliny pod nowoczesną filozofię polityczną, zapewniając podział władzy i suwerenność ludu. - - Wpłynął na myśl naukową, zachęcając do metody eksperymentalnej i racjonalizmu. -explanation: | - Szkoła w Salamance wywarła głęboki wpływ na współczesną myśl, kładąc podwaliny pod prawo międzynarodowe, opowiadając się za uniwersalnymi prawami człowieka i ustanawiając podstawowe zasady filozofii politycznej i myślenia naukowego. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4028c4b6a55..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual foi a influência da Escola de Salamanca no desenvolvimento do pensamento moderno? -answer: Todas as outras respostas estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - Contribuiu para o surgimento do direito internacional e o reconhecimento dos direitos humanos universais. - - Estabeleceu as bases da filosofia política moderna ao afirmar a separação dos poderes e a soberania popular. - - Influenciou o pensamento científico ao encorajar o método experimental e o racionalismo. -explanation: | - A Escola de Salamanca teve uma profunda influência no pensamento moderno, criando a base para o direito internacional, defendendo os direitos humanos universais e estabelecendo princípios fundamentais para a filosofia política e o pensamento científico. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 76ba58264e3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki Ishure ry’i Salamanca ryagize ico rikoze ku bijanye n’ugutera imbere kw’ivyiyumviro vyo muri iki gihe? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Yatumye habaho amategeko mpuzamakungu no kwemera uburenganzira bwa muntu kw’isi yose. - - Yashizeho imishinge y’ubuhinga bwa politike bwo muri iki gihe mu kwemeza ko ubutegetsi butandukanye n’ubusegaba bwa bose. - - Yaragize ico ikoze ku vyiyumviro vya siyansi mu kuremesha uburyo bwo kugerageza no gushingira intahe ibintu. -explanation: | - Ishure ry’i Salamanca ryaragize akosho kanini ku vyiyumviro vyo muri iki gihe, ryashizeho umushinge w’amategeko mpuzamakungu, riharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu kw’isi yose, rishiraho ingingo ngenderwako z’ishimikiro z’ubuhinga bwa politike n’ivyiyumviro vya siyansi. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8afc03a1fa4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каково было влияние Школы Саламанки на развитие современной мысли? -answer: Все другие ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Она способствовала возникновению международного права и признанию универсальных человеческих прав. - - Она заложила основы современной политической философии, утверждая разделение властей и народный суверенитет. - - Она повлияла на научную мысль, поощряя экспериментальный метод и рационализм. -explanation: - Школа Саламанки оказала глубокое влияние на современную мысль, заложив основы для международного права, выступая за универсальные человеческие права и устанавливая фундаментальные принципы для политической философии и научного мышления. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26abe161a26..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kakav je bio uticaj Škole iz Salamanke na razvoj modernog mišljenja? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - Doprinelo je pojavi međunarodnog prava i priznavanju univerzalnih ljudskih prava. - - Postavio je temelje moderne političke filozofije tvrdeći odvajanje vlasti i narodnu suverenost. - - Uticalo je na naučnu misao podsticanjem eksperimentalne metode i racionalizma. -explanation: | - Škola iz Salamanke imala je dubok uticaj na moderno mišljenje, postavljajući temelje za međunarodno pravo, zalažući se za univerzalna ljudska prava i uspostavljajući osnovne principe za političku filozofiju i naučno razmišljanje. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ea45a66e655..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilket inflytande hade Salamancaskolan på utvecklingen av det moderna tänkandet? -answer: Alla de andra svaren är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - Den bidrog till framväxten av internationell rätt och erkännandet av universella mänskliga rättigheter. - - Den lade grunden till den moderna politiska filosofin genom att hävda maktdelning och folksuveränitet. - - Den påverkade det vetenskapliga tänkandet genom att uppmuntra den experimentella metoden och rationalism. -explanation: | - Salamancaskolan hade ett djupgående inflytande på det moderna tänkandet och lade grunden för internationell rätt, förespråkade universella mänskliga rättigheter och fastställde grundläggande principer för politisk filosofi och vetenskapligt tänkande. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 68bc4283bd5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je! Ushawishi wa Shule ya Salamanca ulikuwa upi katika ukuzaji wa fikra za kisasa? -answer: Majibu mengine yote ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Ilichangia kuibuka kwa sheria za kimataifa na utambuzi wa haki za binadamu kwa wote. - - Iliweka misingi ya falsafa ya kisasa ya kisiasa kwa kusisitiza mgawanyo wa mamlaka na enzi kuu ya watu wengi. - - Iliathiri mawazo ya kisayansi kwa kuhimiza njia ya majaribio na busara. -explanation: | - Shule ya Salamanca ilikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa juu ya mawazo ya kisasa, ikiweka msingi wa sheria za kimataifa, kutetea haki za binadamu kwa wote, na kuanzisha kanuni za kimsingi za falsafa ya kisiasa na mawazo ya kisayansi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7be91f0713a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: อิทธิพลของโรงเรียนซาลามังกาต่อการพัฒนาความคิดสมัยใหม่คืออะไร? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมดถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - มันมีส่วนช่วยในการเกิดขึ้นของกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศและการยอมรับสิทธิมนุษยชนสากล - - มันวางรากฐานของปรัชญาการเมืองสมัยใหม่โดยการยืนยันการแยกอำนาจและอธิปไตยของประชาชน - - มันมีอิทธิพลต่อความคิดทางวิทยาศาสตร์โดยการส่งเสริมวิธีการทดลองและเหตุผลนิยม -explanation: | - โรงเรียนซาลามังกามีอิทธิพลอย่างลึกซึ้งต่อความคิดสมัยใหม่ วางรากฐานสำหรับกฎหมายระหว่างประเทศ สนับสนุนสิทธิมนุษยชนสากล และสร้างหลักการพื้นฐานสำหรับปรัชญาการเมืองและการคิดทางวิทยาศาสตร์ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4820d3c28e0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Salamanca Okulu'nun modern düşüncenin gelişimi üzerindeki etkisi neydi? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - Uluslararası hukukun ortaya çıkmasına ve evrensel insan haklarının tanınmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. - - Kuvvetler ayrılığını ve halk egemenliğini savunarak modern siyaset felsefesinin temellerini atmıştır. - - Deneysel yöntemi ve rasyonalizmi teşvik ederek bilimsel düşünceyi etkilemiştir. -explanation: | - Salamanca Okulu, uluslararası hukukun temelini atarak, evrensel insan haklarını savunarak ve siyaset felsefesi ve bilimsel düşünce için temel ilkeler oluşturarak modern düşünce üzerinde derin bir etkiye sahip olmuştur. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0b66a6dca37..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ảnh hưởng của Trường Salamanca đối với sự phát triển của tư duy hiện đại là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Nó đóng góp vào sự xuất hiện của luật pháp quốc tế và sự công nhận của quyền con người phổ quát. - - Nó đặt nền móng cho triết học chính trị hiện đại bằng cách khẳng định sự phân chia quyền lực và chủ quyền của nhân dân. - - Nó ảnh hưởng đến tư duy khoa học bằng cách khuyến khích phương pháp thực nghiệm và chủ nghĩa duy lý. -explanation: | - Trường Salamanca đã có ảnh hưởng sâu rộng đối với tư duy hiện đại, đặt nền móng cho luật pháp quốc tế, ủng hộ quyền con người phổ quát, và thiết lập các nguyên tắc cơ bản cho triết học chính trị và tư duy khoa học. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8f36d41979a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 萨拉曼卡学派对现代思想的发展有何影响？ -answer: 所有其他答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它促进了国际法的出现和普遍人权的认可。 - - 它通过主张权力分立和人民主权，为现代政治哲学奠定了基础。 - - 它通过鼓励实验方法和理性主义，影响了科学思想。 -explanation: - 萨拉曼卡学派对现代思想产生了深远的影响，为国际法的建立奠定了基础，倡导普遍人权，并为政治哲学和科学思维确立了基本原则。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 18108070dd3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/057/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 薩拉曼卡學派對現代思想的發展有何影響？ -answer: 其他答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 它促進了國際法的出現和對普遍人權的承認。 - - 它宣稱三權分立和人民主權，奠定了現代政治哲學的基礎。 - - 它通過鼓勵實驗方法和理性主義影響了科學思想。 -explanation: | - 薩拉曼卡學派對現代思想影響深遠，奠定了國際法的基礎，提倡普遍人權，並為政治哲學和科學思想建立了基本原則。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 10b1b759291..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какво е било отношението на средновековната Църква към лихвените заеми? -answer: Тя ги забранява. -wrong_answers: - - Това ги окуражава. - - Тя ги толерира в определени случаи. - - Тя нямаше мнение по въпроса. -explanation: | - Средновековната Църква забранява лихвените заеми, считайки тази практика за грях на лихварството, тъй като смята за неморално да се печели от заем, като се иска повече от първоначалната сума. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6c987d54b15..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký byl postoj středověké církve k úročeným půjčkám? -answer: Zakazovala je. -wrong_answers: - - Podporovala je. - - V určitých případech je tolerovala. - - Neměla k tomu žádný názor. -explanation: | - Středověká církev zakazovala úročené půjčky, protože tuto praxi považovala za hřích lichvy, jelikož považovala za nemorální zisk z půjčky tím, že požaduje více než původní částku. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 36cb72489b5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wie war die Haltung der mittelalterlichen Kirche gegenüber zinsbringenden Darlehen? -answer: Sie verbot sie. -wrong_answers: - - Sie förderte sie. - - Sie duldete sie in bestimmten Fällen. - - Sie hatte keine Meinung zu dem Thema. -explanation: | - Die mittelalterliche Kirche verbot zinsbringende Darlehen und betrachtete diese Praxis als Sünde der Wucher, da es als unmoralisch angesehen wurde, aus einem Darlehen Profit zu schlagen, indem mehr als der ursprüngliche Betrag gefordert wurde. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/en.yml index b5cda5d03d7..a97cade5807 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -question: What was the medieval Church's attitude towards interest-bearing loans? -answer: It prohibited them. +question: What was the main argument of Nicolas Oresme against currency alterations? +answer: They benefit those in power at the expense of the community. wrong_answers: - - It encouraged them. - - It tolerated them in certain cases. - - It had no opinion on the matter. + - They prevent international trade and commerce. + - They violate divine law as stated in the Scriptures. + - They are too technically difficult for medieval mints to execute. explanation: | - The medieval Church prohibited interest-bearing loans, considering this practice a sin of usury, as it deemed immoral to profit from a loan by demanding more than the initial amount. + Nicolas Oresme argued that currency alterations primarily benefit the prince at the expense of the community, constituting an unjust form of appropriation. He emphasized that such manipulations lead to shortages, black markets, and economic instability. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 87fccce6580..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál era la actitud de la Iglesia medieval hacia los préstamos con interés? -answer: Los prohibía. -wrong_answers: - - Los alentaba. - - Los toleraba en ciertos casos. - - No tenía opinión al respecto. -explanation: | - La Iglesia medieval prohibía los préstamos con interés, considerando esta práctica un pecado de usura, ya que se consideraba inmoral obtener beneficio de un préstamo exigiendo más que la cantidad inicial. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 24d36c28d9b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis oli keskaegse Kiriku suhtumine intressiga laenudesse? -answer: See keelas need. -wrong_answers: - - See julgustas neid. - - See talus neid teatud juhtudel. - - Sellel polnud selles küsimuses mingit arvamust. -explanation: | - Keskaegne Kirik keelas intressiga laenud, pidades seda praktikat usura patuks, kuna peeti ebaõiglaseks kasumit teenida laenult, nõudes rohkem kui algsummat. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 040d22574d7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: نگرش کلیسای قرون وسطی نسبت به وام‌های بهره‌دار چه بود؟ -answer: این کار را برای آن‌ها ممنوع کرد. -wrong_answers: - - این به آن‌ها انگیزه داد. - - در موارد خاصی آن‌ها را تحمل می‌کرد. - - در این مورد نظری نداشت. -explanation: | - کلیسای قرون وسطی وام‌های بهره‌دار را ممنوع کرد و این عمل را گناه رباخواری می‌دانست، زیرا سود بردن از وام با درخواست بیش از مبلغ اولیه را غیراخلاقی می‌پنداشت. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ede1e5f0fc5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä oli keskiaikaisen kirkon asenne korkoa tuottaviin lainoihin? -answer: Se kielsi ne. -wrong_answers: - - Se kannusti niihin. - - Se salli ne tietyissä tapauksissa. - - Sillä ei ollut mielipidettä asiasta. -explanation: | - Keskiaikainen kirkko kielsi korkoa tuottavat lainat, pitäen tätä käytäntöä korkonkiskonnan syntinä, koska se piti moraalittomana hyötyä lainasta vaatimalla enemmän kuin alkuperäisen summan. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fr.yml index b02d0072a1d..569b79b79f7 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -question: Quelle était l'attitude de l'Église médiévale vis-à-vis du prêt à intérêt ? -answer: Elle l'interdisait. +question: Quel était le principal argument de Nicolas Oresme contre les altérations monétaires ? +answer: Elles profitent aux dirigeants aux dépens de la communauté. wrong_answers: - - Elle l'encourageait. - - Elle le tolérait dans certains cas. - - Elle n'avait pas d'opinion sur la question. + - Elles empêchent le commerce international. + - Elles violent la loi divine telle qu'énoncée dans les Écritures. + - Elles sont trop complexes techniquement pour les ateliers monétaires médiévaux. explanation: | - L'Église médiévale interdisait le prêt à intérêt, considérant cette pratique comme un péché d'usure, car elle jugeait immoral de tirer profit d'un prêt en exigeant plus que le montant initial. -reviewed: true + Nicolas Oresme soutenait que les altérations monétaires profitent principalement au prince aux dépens de la communauté, constituant une forme injuste d'appropriation. Il soulignait que ces manipulations entraînent des pénuries, des marchés noirs et une instabilité économique. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 501a98fba99..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ब्याज-आधारित ऋणों के प्रति मध्यकालीन चर्च का रवैया क्या था? -answer: इसने उन पर प्रतिबन्ध लगा दिया। -wrong_answers: - - इससे उन्हें प्रोत्साहन मिला। - - कुछ मामलों में तो उन्हें सहन भी किया गया। - - इस मामले पर उसकी कोई राय नहीं थी। -explanation: | - मध्यकालीन चर्च ने ब्याज-आधारित ऋण पर प्रतिबंध लगा दिया था, क्योंकि इस प्रथा को सूदखोरी का पाप माना जाता था, क्योंकि प्रारंभिक राशि से अधिक की मांग करके ऋण से लाभ कमाना अनैतिक माना जाता था। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cd95a952b10..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Bagaimana sikap Gereja pada masa pertengahan terhadap pinjaman yang dikenakan bunga? -answer: Itu melarangnya. -wrong_answers: - - Itu mendorongnya. - - Itu mentolerirnya dalam beberapa kasus. - - Itu tidak memiliki pendapat tentang hal tersebut. -explanation: | - Gereja pada masa pertengahan melarang pinjaman yang dikenakan bunga, menganggap praktik ini sebagai dosa riba, karena dianggap tidak bermoral untuk mendapatkan keuntungan dari pinjaman dengan menuntut lebih dari jumlah awal. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d22ac3afe97..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual era l'atteggiamento della Chiesa medievale nei confronti dei prestiti a interesse? -answer: Li proibiva. -wrong_answers: - - Li incoraggiava. - - Li tollerava in certi casi. - - Non aveva un'opinione in merito. -explanation: | - La Chiesa medievale proibiva i prestiti a interesse, considerando questa pratica un peccato di usura, poiché riteneva immorale trarre profitto da un prestito esigendo più dell'importo iniziale. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3b8a04029ed..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世の教会は利息を生む貸し付けに対してどのような態度をとっていましたか？ -answer: それを禁じていました。 -wrong_answers: - - それを奨励していました。 - - 特定のケースではそれを容認していました。 - - その件に関して意見を持っていませんでした。 -explanation: | - 中世の教会は、利息を生む貸し付けを禁じており、この慣行を貸し付けによって初期額以上を要求することから利益を得る行為とみなし、それを利息という罪と考えていました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 02eea8aa207..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 이자 부담 대출에 대한 중세 교회의 태도는 어땠나요? -answer: 이를 금지했습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 이는 그들에게 용기를 주었습니다. - - 특정 경우에는 이를 허용했습니다. - - 이 문제에 대해서는 의견이 없었습니다. -explanation: | - 중세 교회는 원금보다 더 많은 금액을 요구하여 대출을 통해 이익을 얻는 것을 부도덕한 행위로 간주하여 고리대금업의 죄악으로 간주하여 이자 부담 대출을 금지했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 17266b5525d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva var den middelalderske kirkens holdning til lån med renter? -answer: Den forbød dem. -wrong_answers: - - Den oppmuntret til dem. - - Den tolererte dem i visse tilfeller. - - Den hadde ingen mening om saken. -explanation: | - Den middelalderske kirken forbød lån med renter, og betraktet denne praksisen som en synd av renteutbytting, siden den anså det som umoralsk å tjene på et lån ved å kreve mer enn det opprinnelige beløpet. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1de3bff05a0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hoe stond de middeleeuwse kerk tegenover rentedragende leningen? -answer: Het verbood hen. -wrong_answers: - - Het moedigde hen aan. - - Het tolereerde ze in bepaalde gevallen. - - Het had geen mening over de zaak. -explanation: | - De middeleeuwse kerk verbood rentedragende leningen en beschouwde deze praktijk als een woekerzonde, omdat ze het immoreel vond om te profiteren van een lening door meer te vragen dan het oorspronkelijke bedrag. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1e1ab472d11..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki był stosunek średniowiecznego Kościoła do oprocentowanych pożyczek? -answer: Zabronił im tego. -wrong_answers: - - To ich zachęciło. - - Tolerowała je w niektórych przypadkach. - - Nie miał zdania w tej sprawie. -explanation: | - Średniowieczny Kościół zakazał udzielania oprocentowanych pożyczek, uznając tę praktykę za grzech lichwy, ponieważ uważał za niemoralne czerpanie korzyści z pożyczki poprzez żądanie kwoty wyższej niż początkowa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7c372c4156f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual era a atitude da Igreja medieval em relação aos empréstimos com juros? -answer: Ela os proibia. -wrong_answers: - - Ela os incentivava. - - Ela os tolerava em certos casos. - - Ela não tinha opinião sobre o assunto. -explanation: | - A Igreja medieval proibia os empréstimos com juros, considerando essa prática um pecado de usura, pois julgava imoral lucrar com um empréstimo exigindo mais do que o montante inicial. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index de8abfd989f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: None Ekleziya yo mu kinjana ca mbere yari ifise inyifato iyihe ku bijanye n’inguzanyo zitanga inyungu? -answer: Rwarababujije. -wrong_answers: - - Rwarabaremesheje. - - Rwarabihanganira mu bihe bimwebimwe. - - Nta ciyumviro cari gifise ku bijanye n’ico kibazo. -explanation: | - Ekleziya yo mu kinjana ca mbere yarabujije inguzanyo zitanga inyungu, ibona ko uwo mugenzo ari icaha c’inyungu, kuko yabona ko ari ubusambanyi kuronka inyungu mu ngurane mu gusaba amahera menshi kuruta ayo umuntu yatanze. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b10185d11ed..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каково было отношение средневековой Церкви к ссудам с процентами? -answer: Она запрещала их. -wrong_answers: - - Она поощряла их. - - Она терпимо относилась к ним в некоторых случаях. - - У неё не было мнения по этому поводу. -explanation: | - Средневековая Церковь запрещала ссуды с процентами, считая эту практику грехом ростовщичества, поскольку считалось аморальным получать прибыль с займа, требуя больше, чем исходная сумма. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e7c8f07c00a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kakav je bio stav srednjovekovne Crkve prema zajmovima s kamatom? -answer: Zabranilo im je. -wrong_answers: - - To ih je ohrabrilo. - - Tolerisao ih je u određenim slučajevima. - - Nije imao mišljenje o tom pitanju. -explanation: | - Srednjovekovna crkva zabranjivala je zajmove s kamatom, smatrajući ovu praksu grehom lihvarenja, jer je smatrala nemoralnim profitirati od zajma zahtevajući više od početnog iznosa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1e6f4820f4a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken var den medeltida kyrkans inställning till räntebärande lån? -answer: Det förbjöd dem. -wrong_answers: - - Det uppmuntrade dem. - - Den tolererade dem i vissa fall. - - Det hade ingen åsikt i frågan. -explanation: | - Den medeltida kyrkan förbjöd räntebärande lån och ansåg att det var en ockerliknande synd, eftersom det ansågs omoraliskt att dra nytta av ett lån genom att kräva mer än det ursprungliga beloppet. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 63535bf310d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, Kanisa la zama za kati lilikuwa na mtazamo gani kuhusu mikopo yenye riba? -answer: Iliwakataza. -wrong_answers: - - Iliwatia moyo. - - Iliwavumilia katika hali fulani. - - Hakuwa na maoni juu ya jambo hilo. -explanation: | - Kanisa la enzi za kati lilikataza mikopo yenye riba, ikichukulia zoea hili kuwa dhambi ya riba, kwani liliona kuwa ni kinyume cha maadili kupata faida kutokana na mkopo kwa kudai zaidi ya kiasi cha awali. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4aa02fb63f3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ทัศนคติของคริสตจักรในยุคกลางต่อการให้กู้ยืมเงินที่มีดอกเบี้ยเป็นอย่างไร? -answer: มันห้ามพวกเขา -wrong_answers: - - มันกระตุ้นให้พวกเขา - - มันยอมรับพวกเขาในบางกรณี - - มันไม่มีความคิดเห็นในเรื่องนี้ -explanation: | - ในยุคกลาง คริสตจักรห้ามการให้กู้ยืมที่มีดอกเบี้ย โดยถือว่าการปฏิบัตินี้เป็นบาปของการให้ดอกเบี้ยเกินควร เนื่องจากถือว่าไม่มีศีลธรรมที่จะทำกำไรจากการให้กู้ยืมโดยการเรียกร้องมากกว่าจำนวนเงินเริ่มต้น -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 38070b25708..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ortaçağ Kilisesi'nin faizli kredilere karşı tutumu neydi? -answer: Onları yasakladı. -wrong_answers: - - Bu onları cesaretlendirdi. - - Bazı durumlarda bunlara müsamaha gösterdi. - - Bu konuda hiçbir fikri yoktu. -explanation: | - Ortaçağ Kilisesi faizli kredileri yasaklamış, bu uygulamayı tefecilik günahı olarak değerlendirmiş, bir krediden başlangıçtaki miktardan daha fazlasını talep ederek kazanç sağlamayı ahlaksızlık olarak görmüştür. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6570f150cdb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Thái độ của Giáo hội thời Trung cổ đối với việc cho vay có tính lãi là gì? -answer: Nó cấm việc đó. -wrong_answers: - - Nó khuyến khích việc đó. - - Nó chấp nhận việc đó trong một số trường hợp. - - Nó không có ý kiến về vấn đề này. -explanation: | - Giáo hội thời Trung cổ đã cấm việc cho vay có tính lãi, coi hành động này là tội lỗi của sự tăng lãi, vì nó coi việc kiếm lợi từ một khoản vay bằng cách yêu cầu nhiều hơn số tiền ban đầu là không đạo đức. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 19feffd7757..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世纪教会对于带息贷款的态度是什么？ -answer: 它禁止这种做法。 -wrong_answers: - - 它鼓励这种做法。 - - 在某些情况下它容忍这种做法。 - - 它对此没有意见。 -explanation: | - 中世纪教会禁止带息贷款，认为这种做法是高利贷的罪恶，因为它认为通过要求借款人偿还超过初始金额的方式从贷款中获利是不道德的。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d41f8a18534..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/063/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 中世紀教會對有息貸款的態度為何？ -answer: 它禁止他們。 -wrong_answers: - - 它鼓勵了他們。 - - 它在某些情況下容忍他們。 - - 它對此事沒有任何意見。 -explanation: | - 中世紀的教會禁止有息貸款，認為這種做法是高利貸的罪過，因為教會認為從貸款中獲利，要求超過初始金額是不道德的。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bc2b56ef026..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какъв е приносът на физиократите за либералната мисъл? -answer: Всички отговори по-горе са верни. -wrong_answers: - - Те се застъпват за индивидуалната свобода и частната собственост. - - Те развиват теорията за свободния пазар. - - Те критикуват меркантилизма и държавната намеса. -explanation: | - Физиократите допринасят за развитието на либералната мисъл, като се застъпват за индивидуалната свобода, частната собственост и свободния пазар, като същевременно отхвърлят меркантилизма и държавната намеса, с което полагат основите на икономика, основана на природни закони. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 912d3d85f0a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký byl přínos fyziokratů pro liberální myšlení? -answer: Všechny výše uvedené odpovědi jsou správné. -wrong_answers: - - Zastávali se individuální svobody a soukromého vlastnictví. - - Vyvinuli teorii volného trhu. - - Kritizovali merkantilismus a státní zásahy. -explanation: | - Fyziokraté přispěli k liberálnímu myšlení tím, že zastávali individuální svobodu, soukromé vlastnictví, volný trh a odmítali merkantilismus a státní zásahy, čímž položili základy pro ekonomiku založenou na přirozených zákonech. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 627027226c9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was war der Beitrag der Physiokraten zum liberalen Denken? -answer: Alle oben genannten Antworten sind korrekt. -wrong_answers: - - Sie setzten sich für individuelle Freiheit und Privateigentum ein. - - Sie entwickelten die Theorie des freien Marktes. - - Sie kritisierten den Merkantilismus und staatliche Eingriffe. -explanation: | - Die Physiokraten trugen zum liberalen Denken bei, indem sie sich für individuelle Freiheit, Privateigentum, den freien Markt einsetzten und den Merkantilismus sowie staatliche Eingriffe ablehnten, wodurch sie die Grundlagen für eine auf natürlichen Gesetzen basierende Wirtschaft legten. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/en.yml index 9ca22541ecf..8ba9589406e 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What was the contribution of the Physiocrats to liberal thought? -answer: All of the above answers are correct. +answer: They developed the theory of the free market. wrong_answers: - They advocated for individual freedom and private property. - - They developed the theory of the free market. + - They designed the first centralized economic planning models. - They criticized mercantilism and state intervention. explanation: | - The Physiocrats contributed to liberal thought by advocating for individual freedom, private property, and the free market, while rejecting mercantilism and state intervention, thereby laying the groundwork for an economy based on natural laws. + The Physiocrats' central contribution to liberal thought was developing the theory of the free market, arguing that economic laws are natural and should not be disturbed by state intervention, encapsulated in their motto "Laissez-faire, laissez passer." reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3f06fca0cd5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál fue la contribución de los Fisiócratas al pensamiento liberal? -answer: Todas las respuestas anteriores son correctas. -wrong_answers: - - Abogaron por la libertad individual y la propiedad privada. - - Desarrollaron la teoría del mercado libre. - - Criticaron el mercantilismo y la intervención del estado. -explanation: | - Los Fisiócratas contribuyeron al pensamiento liberal abogando por la libertad individual, la propiedad privada, el mercado libre y rechazando el mercantilismo y la intervención del estado, sentando las bases para una economía basada en leyes naturales. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 245cd456e34..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis oli füsiokraatide panus liberaalsesse mõttesse? -answer: Kõik ülaltoodud vastused on õiged. -wrong_answers: - - Nad pooldasid individuaalset vabadust ja eraomandit. - - Nad töötasid välja vaba turu teooria. - - Nad kritiseerisid merkantilismi ja riiklikku sekkumist. -explanation: | - Füsiokraadid andsid oma panuse liberaalsesse mõttesse, pooldades individuaalset vabadust, eraomandit, vaba turgu ning lükates tagasi merkantilismi ja riikliku sekkumise, rajades sellega aluse majandusele, mis põhineb loodusseadustel. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 95f98e8438f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: مشارکت فیزیوکرات‌ها در اندیشه لیبرال چه بود؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های فوق صحیح هستند. -wrong_answers: - - آن‌ها از آزادی فردی و مالکیت خصوصی حمایت کردند. - - آن‌ها نظریه بازار آزاد را توسعه دادند. - - آن‌ها از مرکانتیلیسم و مداخله دولت انتقاد کردند. -explanation: | - فیزیوکرات‌ها با حمایت از آزادی فردی، مالکیت خصوصی، بازار آزاد و رد مرکانتیلیسم و مداخله دولت، به تفکر لیبرال کمک کردند و زمینه را برای اقتصادی مبتنی بر قوانین طبیعی فراهم کردند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ce05215eea0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä oli fysiokraattien panos liberaaliin ajatteluun? -answer: Kaikki yllä olevat vastaukset ovat oikeita. -wrong_answers: - - He kannattivat yksilön vapautta ja yksityisomaisuutta. - - He kehittivät vapaan markkinan teorian. - - He kritisoivat merkantilismia ja valtion sekaantumista. -explanation: | - Fysiokraatit edistivät liberaalia ajattelua kannattamalla yksilön vapautta, yksityisomaisuutta, vapaata markkinataloutta ja hylkäämällä merkantilismin sekä valtion sekaantumisen, luoden perustan luonnonlakien mukaiselle taloudelle. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fr.yml index 5e39bdc6f1e..e8c8b6c354b 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la contribution des physiocrates à la pensée libérale ? -answer: Toutes les réponses ci-dessus sont correctes. +answer: Ils ont développé la théorie du libre marché. wrong_answers: - Ils ont défendu la liberté individuelle et la propriété privée. - - Ils ont développé la théorie du marché libre. + - Ils ont conçu les premiers modèles de planification économique centralisée. - Ils ont critiqué le mercantilisme et l'intervention de l'État. explanation: | - Les physiocrates ont contribué à la pensée libérale en prônant la liberté individuelle, la propriété privée, le marché libre et en rejetant le mercantilisme et l'intervention étatique, posant les bases d'une économie fondée sur des lois naturelles. -reviewed: true + La contribution centrale des physiocrates à la pensée libérale a été le développement de la théorie du libre marché, soutenant que les lois économiques sont naturelles et ne doivent pas être perturbées par l'intervention de l'État, résumé dans leur devise « Laissez-faire, laissez passer ». +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9cce6e138b5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: फिजियोक्रेट्स ने उदारवादी विचारधारा में क्या योगदान दिया? -answer: ऊपर दिए गए सभी जवाब सही हैं। -wrong_answers: - - उन्होंने व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता और निजी संपत्ति की वकालत की। - - उन्होंने मुक्त बाजार के सिद्धांत को विकसित किया। - - उन्होंने व्यापारवाद और सरकारी हस्तक्षेप की आलोचना की। -explanation: | - फिजियोक्रेट्स ने व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता, निजी संपत्ति, मुक्त बाजार की वकालत करके और मर्केंटिलिज़्म व सरकारी हस्तक्षेप को खारिज करके उदार विचारधारा में योगदान दिया, जिससे प्राकृतिक नियमों पर आधारित अर्थव्यवस्था की नींव रखी गई। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7ff5c26aa72..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa kontribusi Fisiokrat terhadap pemikiran liberal? -answer: Semua jawaban di atas benar. -wrong_answers: - - Mereka mendukung kebebasan individu dan hak milik pribadi. - - Mereka mengembangkan teori pasar bebas. - - Mereka mengkritik merkantilisme dan intervensi negara. -explanation: | - Fisiokrat berkontribusi pada pemikiran liberal dengan mendukung kebebasan individu, hak milik pribadi, pasar bebas, dan dengan menolak merkantilisme serta intervensi negara, meletakkan dasar bagi ekonomi yang berdasarkan hukum alam. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 885e33a7b7b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è stato il contributo dei Fisiocratici al pensiero liberale? -answer: Tutte le risposte sopra indicate sono corrette. -wrong_answers: - - Hanno sostenuto la libertà individuale e la proprietà privata. - - Hanno sviluppato la teoria del libero mercato. - - Hanno criticato il mercantilismo e l'intervento dello Stato. -explanation: | - I Fisiocratici hanno contribuito al pensiero liberale sostenendo la libertà individuale, la proprietà privata, il libero mercato e rifiutando il mercantilismo e l'intervento dello Stato, gettando le basi per un'economia basata sulle leggi naturali. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0577ea1d748..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 物理学派が自由主義思想にどのような貢献をしたか？ -answer: 上記のすべての回答が正しい。 -wrong_answers: - - 個人の自由と私有財産を主張した。 - - 自由市場の理論を発展させた。 - - 重商主義と国家介入を批判した。 -explanation: | - 物理学派は、個人の自由、私有財産、自由市場を支持し、重商主義と国家介入を拒否することで、自然法に基づく経済の基礎を築くことによって、自由主義思想に貢献しました。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b119bd03ebe..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 자유주의 사상에 대한 피지오크라트의 공헌은 무엇이었나요? -answer: 위의 정답은 모두 정답입니다. -wrong_answers: - - 그들은 개인의 자유와 사유 재산을 옹호했습니다. - - 그들은 자유 시장 이론을 발전시켰습니다. - - 그들은 중상주의와 국가 개입을 비판했습니다. -explanation: | - 피지오크파는 개인의 자유, 사유 재산, 자유 시장을 옹호하고 중상주의와 국가 개입을 거부하여 자연법에 기반한 경제의 토대를 마련함으로써 자유주의 사상에 기여했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0d8ff1996df..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva var fysiokratenes bidrag til liberal tankegang? -answer: Alle de ovennevnte svarene er riktige. -wrong_answers: - - De argumenterte for individuell frihet og privat eiendom. - - De utviklet teorien om det frie markedet. - - De kritiserte merkantilisme og statlig intervensjon. -explanation: | - Fysiokratene bidro til liberal tankegang ved å argumentere for individuell frihet, privat eiendom, det frie markedet, og ved å avvise merkantilisme og statlig intervensjon, og la dermed grunnlaget for en økonomi basert på naturlige lover. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dd518cee40b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat was de bijdrage van de Fysiocraten aan het liberale denken? -answer: Alle bovenstaande antwoorden zijn juist. -wrong_answers: - - Ze pleitten voor individuele vrijheid en privébezit. - - Ze ontwikkelden de theorie van de vrije markt. - - Ze bekritiseerden het mercantilisme en staatsinterventie. -explanation: | - De Fysiocraten droegen bij aan het liberale gedachtegoed door te pleiten voor individuele vrijheid, privébezit en de vrije markt, terwijl ze mercantilisme en staatsinterventie verwierpen en zo de basis legden voor een economie gebaseerd op natuurwetten. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c7a29f9538a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki był wkład fizjokratów w myśl liberalną? -answer: Wszystkie powyższe odpowiedzi są prawidłowe. -wrong_answers: - - Opowiadali się za wolnością jednostki i własnością prywatną. - - Rozwinęli oni teorię wolnego rynku. - - Krytykowali oni merkantylizm i interwencję państwa. -explanation: | - Fizjokraci wnieśli wkład do myśli liberalnej, opowiadając się za wolnością jednostki, własnością prywatną, wolnym rynkiem oraz odrzucając merkantylizm i interwencję państwa, kładąc podwaliny pod gospodarkę opartą na prawach naturalnych. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4bc66a2c697..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual foi a contribuição dos Fisiocratas para o pensamento liberal? -answer: Todas as respostas acima estão corretas. -wrong_answers: - - Eles defendiam a liberdade individual e a propriedade privada. - - Eles desenvolveram a teoria do mercado livre. - - Eles criticaram o mercantilismo e a intervenção do estado. -explanation: | - Os Fisiocratas contribuíram para o pensamento liberal defendendo a liberdade individual, a propriedade privada, o mercado livre e rejeitando o mercantilismo e a intervenção estatal, estabelecendo as bases para uma economia baseada em leis naturais. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9061fb173b9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: None aba Fiziyokarate bagize uruhara uruhe mu vyiyumviro vy’ubwigenge? -answer: Inyishu zose zivugwa haruguru ni ukuri. -wrong_answers: - - Bavuganira umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe n’itunga ryiwe bwite. - - Baciye batera imbere inyigisho y’isoko ry’uburenganzira. - - Banegura ubudandaji n’ingene Leta igira ico ikoze. -explanation: | - Abanyabwenge b’abanyabwenge baragize ico baterereye mu vyiyumviro vy’ubwigenge mu kuvuganira umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe, umutungo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe, n’isoko ry’ubwigenge, mu gihe banse ubudandaji n’ukwivanga kwa Leta, gutyo bagashinga umushinge w’ubutunzi bushingiye ku mategeko y’ibidukikije. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 36d87efb582..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каков был вклад физиократов в либеральную мысль? -answer: Все вышеперечисленные ответы верны. -wrong_answers: - - Они выступали за индивидуальную свободу и частную собственность. - - Они разработали теорию свободного рынка. - - Они критиковали меркантилизм и государственное вмешательство. -explanation: | - Физиократы внесли вклад в либеральную мысль, выступая за индивидуальную свободу, частную собственность, свободный рынок и отвергая меркантилизм и государственное вмешательство, заложив основы для экономики, основанной на естественных законах. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d159469e452..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kakav je bio doprinos fiziokrata liberalnoj misli? -answer: Svi gore navedeni odgovori su tačni. -wrong_answers: - - Zagovarali su individualnu slobodu i privatnu svojinu. - - Razvili su teoriju slobodnog tržišta. - - Kritikovali su merkantilizam i državnu intervenciju. -explanation: | - Fiziokrati su doprineli liberalnoj misli zagovarajući individualnu slobodu, privatnu svojinu, slobodno tržište i odbacujući merkantilizam i državnu intervenciju, postavljajući temelje za ekonomiju zasnovanu na prirodnim zakonima. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26a5dfc3131..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad var fysiokraternas bidrag till det liberala tänkandet? -answer: Alla ovanstående svar är korrekta. -wrong_answers: - - De förespråkade individuell frihet och privat egendom. - - De utvecklade teorin om den fria marknaden. - - De kritiserade merkantilism och statliga ingripanden. -explanation: | - Fysiokraterna bidrog till det liberala tänkandet genom att förespråka individuell frihet, privat egendom och den fria marknaden, samtidigt som de förkastade merkantilism och statliga ingripanden och därmed lade grunden för en ekonomi baserad på naturlagar. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5ed1682120f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je! ni mchango gani wa Wanafiziokrasia katika fikra huria? -answer: Majibu yote hapo juu ni sahihi. -wrong_answers: - - Walitetea uhuru wa mtu binafsi na mali binafsi. - - Walianzisha nadharia ya soko huria. - - Walikosoa mercantilism na kuingilia serikali. -explanation: | - Wanafiziokrasia walichangia mawazo ya kiliberali kwa kutetea uhuru wa mtu binafsi, mali ya kibinafsi, soko huria, na kwa kukataa biashara ya kibiashara na kuingilia serikali, wakiweka msingi wa uchumi unaotegemea sheria za asili. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3f311d36452..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: อะไรคือการมีส่วนร่วมของกลุ่มฟีซิโอแครตต่อแนวคิดเสรีนิยม? -answer: คำตอบทั้งหมดข้างต้นถูกต้อง -wrong_answers: - - พวกเขาสนับสนุนเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคลและทรัพย์สินส่วนตัว - - พวกเขาได้พัฒนาทฤษฎีของตลาดเสรี - - พวกเขาวิจารณ์ลัทธิพาณิชย์นิยมและการแทรกแซงของรัฐ -explanation: | - พวกฟิสิโอแครตมีส่วนในการพัฒนาความคิดเสรีโดยสนับสนุนเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล ทรัพย์สินส่วนตัว และตลาดเสรี ในขณะที่ปฏิเสธลัทธิพาณิชยนิยมและการแทรกแซงของรัฐ ซึ่งเป็นการวางรากฐานสำหรับเศรษฐกิจที่อิงตามกฎธรรมชาติ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5b12ec4b2c3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Fizyokratların liberal düşünceye katkısı ne olmuştur? -answer: Yukarıdaki cevapların hepsi doğrudur. -wrong_answers: - - Bireysel özgürlüğü ve özel mülkiyeti savundular. - - Serbest piyasa teorisini geliştirdiler. - - Merkantilizmi ve devlet müdahalesini eleştirdiler. -explanation: | - Fizyokratlar, merkantilizmi ve devlet müdahalesini reddederken bireysel özgürlüğü, özel mülkiyeti ve serbest piyasayı savunarak liberal düşünceye katkıda bulunmuş ve böylece doğal yasalara dayalı bir ekonominin temellerini atmışlardır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6d3312abbf7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Đóng góp của các nhà Kinh tế tự nhiên vào tư tưởng tự do là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời trên đều đúng. -wrong_answers: - - Họ ủng hộ tự do cá nhân và quyền sở hữu tư nhân. - - Họ phát triển lý thuyết về thị trường tự do. - - Họ phê phán chủ nghĩa quốc doanh và sự can thiệp của nhà nước. -explanation: | - Các nhà Kinh tế tự nhiên đã đóng góp vào tư tưởng tự do bằng cách ủng hộ tự do cá nhân, quyền sở hữu tư nhân, thị trường tự do, và bác bỏ chủ nghĩa quốc doanh và sự can thiệp của nhà nước, đặt nền móng cho một nền kinh tế dựa trên các quy luật tự nhiên. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cd9f4ed5c10..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 重农主义者对自由主义思想有何贡献？ -answer: 以上所有答案都是正确的。 -wrong_answers: - - 他们倡导个人自由和私有财产。 - - 他们发展了自由市场理论。 - - 他们批评了重商主义和国家干预。 -explanation: - 重农主义者通过倡导个人自由、私有财产、自由市场，并拒绝重商主义和国家干预，为基于自然法则的经济奠定了基础，从而对自由主义思想做出了贡献。 -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 79c940772f3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/074/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 物理學家對自由主義思想有何貢獻？ -answer: 以上所有答案都是正確的。 -wrong_answers: - - 他們主張個人自由和私有財產。 - - 他們發展了自由市場理論。 - - 他們批判重商主義和國家干預。 -explanation: | - 物理學家提倡個人自由、私有財產和自由市場，摒棄重商主義和國家干預，為以自然法則為基礎的經濟奠定了基礎，因而對自由主義思想作出了貢獻。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index afd9643e156..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е основната разлика между теориите за стойността на Турго и тези на Адам Смит? -answer: Турго смята, че стойността се определя от труда, а Смит - че тя се определя от полезността. -wrong_answers: - - Турго смята, че свободната търговия е най-добрата икономическа политика, докато Смит е убеден в протекционизма. - - Турго смята, че ролята на държавата е да остави пазара свободен, докато Смит смята, че правителството трябва да се намесва в икономиката. - - Няма съществена разлика между теориите на Турго и тези на Смит относно стойността. -explanation: | - Турго смята, че трудът е основният фактор, определящ стойността, докато Адам Смит въвежда понятие за стойност, повлияно от полезността и търсенето, което предвещава субективната икономика. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 996777d447c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je základní rozdíl mezi teoriemi Turgota a teoriemi Adama Smithe o hodnotě? -answer: Turgot věřil, že hodnota je určena prací, zatímco Smith věřil, že je určena užitečností. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot věřil, že volný obchod je nejlepší ekonomickou politikou, zatímco Smith věřil v protekcionismus. - - Turgot věřil, že úlohou státu je nechat trh svobodný, zatímco Smith věřil, že vláda by měla zasahovat do ekonomiky. - - Mezi teoriemi Turgota a teoriemi Smithe o hodnotě neexistuje žádný základní rozdíl. -explanation: | - Turgot považoval práci za hlavní determinant hodnoty, zatímco Adam Smith představil pojem hodnoty ovlivněné užitečností a poptávkou, což předznamenalo subjektivní ekonomiku. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c51943acc72..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist der grundlegende Unterschied zwischen den Theorien von Turgot und denen von Adam Smith bezüglich des Wertes? - -answer: Turgot glaubte, dass der Wert durch Arbeit bestimmt wird, während Smith der Meinung war, er werde durch den Nutzen bestimmt. - -wrong_answers: - - Turgot war der Ansicht, dass Freihandel die beste Wirtschaftspolitik sei, während Smith an Protektionismus glaubte. - - Turgot meinte, dass die Rolle des Staates darin bestehen sollte, den Markt frei zu lassen, während Smith glaubte, dass die Regierung in die Wirtschaft eingreifen sollte. - - Es gibt keinen grundlegenden Unterschied zwischen den Theorien von Turgot und denen von Smith bezüglich des Wertes. - -explanation: - Turgot betrachtete Arbeit als den Hauptbestimmungsfaktor für Wert, während Adam Smith eine Vorstellung von Wert einführte, die durch Nutzen und Nachfrage beeinflusst wurde und die subjektive Ökonomie vorwegnahm. - -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/en.yml index fe797514962..a3bfa08f45e 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is the fundamental difference between the theories of Turgot and those of Adam Smith on value? -answer: Turgot believed that value was determined by labor, while Smith believed it was determined by utility. +answer: Turgot believed that value was subjective and based on utility, while Smith linked value to the labor required for production. wrong_answers: - Turgot believed that free trade was the best economic policy, while Smith believed in protectionism. - Turgot believed that the role of the state was to leave the market free, while Smith believed that the government should intervene in the economy. - There is no fundamental difference between the theories of Turgot and those of Smith on value. explanation: | - Turgot considered labor as the main determinant of value, whereas Adam Smith introduced a notion of value influenced by utility and demand, foreshadowing subjective economics. + According to the course, Turgot and Condillac developed a subjective theory of value based on utility and individual desire, while Adam Smith and Ricardo adopted a labor theory of value where the value of a commodity is determined by the labor required to produce it. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4ac5f780803..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la diferencia fundamental entre las teorías de Turgot y las de Adam Smith sobre el valor? -answer: Turgot creía que el valor estaba determinado por el trabajo, mientras que Smith creía que estaba determinado por la utilidad. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot creía que el libre comercio era la mejor política económica mientras que Smith creía en el proteccionismo. - - Turgot creía que el papel del estado era dejar libre al mercado mientras que Smith creía que el gobierno debería intervenir en la economía. - - No hay diferencia fundamental entre las teorías de Turgot y las de Smith sobre el valor. -explanation: | - Turgot consideraba el trabajo como el principal determinante del valor, mientras que Adam Smith introdujo una noción de valor influenciada por la utilidad y la demanda, anticipando la economía subjetiva. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a0ff24ef80b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on põhimõtteline erinevus Turgot'i ja Adam Smith'i väärtusteooriate vahel? -answer: Turgot uskus, et väärtus määratakse tööjõu abil, samas kui Smith arvas, et selle määrab kasulikkus. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot uskus, et vabakaubandus on parim majanduspoliitika, samas kui Smith pooldas protektsionismi. - - Turgot arvas, et riigi roll on jätta turg vabaks, samas kui Smith uskus, et valitsus peaks majandusse sekkuma. - - Turgot'i ja Smith'i väärtusteooriate vahel ei ole põhimõttelist erinevust. -explanation: | - Turgot pidas tööjõudu väärtuse peamiseks määrajaks, samas kui Adam Smith tutvustas väärtuse mõistet, mida mõjutas kasulikkus ja nõudlus, ennustades ette subjektiivset majandusteadust. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f828f39c077..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: تفاوت اساسی بین نظریه‌های تورگو و آدام اسمیت در مورد ارزش چیست؟ -answer: تورگو معتقد بود که ارزش توسط کار تعیین می‌شود، در حالی که اسمیت معتقد بود که ارزش توسط سودمندی تعیین می‌شود. -wrong_answers: - - تورگو معتقد بود که تجارت آزاد بهترین سیاست اقتصادی است در حالی که اسمیت به حمایت‌گرایی اعتقاد داشت. - - تورگو معتقد بود که نقش دولت این است که بازار را آزاد بگذارد، در حالی که اسمیت معتقد بود که دولت باید در اقتصاد مداخله کند. - - هیچ تفاوت اساسی بین نظریه‌های تورگو و نظریه‌های اسمیت درباره ارزش وجود ندارد. -explanation: | - تورگو کار را به عنوان عامل اصلی تعیین‌کننده ارزش در نظر گرفت، در حالی که آدام اسمیت مفهومی از ارزش را معرفی کرد که تحت تأثیر سودمندی و تقاضا بود و به نوعی اقتصاد ذهنی را پیش‌بینی می‌کرد. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4ffbb8c6710..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on perustavanlaatuinen ero Turgotin ja Adam Smithin arvoteorioissa? -answer: Turgot uskoi, että arvo määräytyi työn perusteella, kun taas Smith uskoi sen määräytyvän hyödyn perusteella. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot uskoi, että vapaakauppa oli paras talouspolitiikka, kun taas Smith uskoi protektionismiin. - - Turgot uskoi, että valtion rooli oli jättää markkinat vapaiksi, kun taas Smith uskoi, että hallituksen tulisi puuttua talouteen. - - Turgotin ja Smithin arvoteorioissa ei ole perustavanlaatuista eroa. -explanation: | - Turgot piti työtä arvon pääasiallisena määrittäjänä, kun taas Adam Smith esitteli arvon käsitteen, johon vaikuttivat hyöty ja kysyntä, ennakoiden subjektiivista taloustiedettä. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fr.yml index 4b7cf43f683..e2f45955230 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la différence fondamentale entre les théories de Turgot et celles d'Adam Smith sur la valeur ? -answer: Turgot croyait que la valeur était déterminée par le travail tandis que Smith croyait qu'elle était déterminée par l'utilité. +answer: Turgot pensait que la valeur était subjective et fondée sur l'utilité, tandis que Smith liait la valeur au travail nécessaire à la production. wrong_answers: - Turgot croyait que le libre-échange était la meilleure politique économique tandis que Smith croyait au protectionnisme. - Turgot croyait que le rôle de l'État était de laisser le marché libre tandis que Smith croyait que le gouvernement devrait intervenir dans l'économie. - Il n'y a pas de différence fondamentale entre les théories de Turgot et celles de Smith sur la valeur. explanation: | - Turgot considérait le travail comme le principal déterminant de la valeur, tandis qu'Adam Smith introduisait une notion de valeur influencée par l'utilité et la demande, préfigurant l'économie subjective. -reviewed: true + Selon le cours, Turgot et Condillac ont développé une théorie subjective de la valeur fondée sur l'utilité et le désir individuel, tandis qu'Adam Smith et Ricardo ont adopté une théorie de la valeur-travail où la valeur d'un bien est déterminée par le travail nécessaire à sa production. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4ee5261cda9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: तुर्गो और एडम स्मिथ के सिद्धांतों में मूल्य के बारे में मूलभूत अंतर क्या है? -answer: तुर्गो का मानना था कि मूल्य श्रम से निर्धारित होता है, जबकि स्मिथ का मानना था कि यह उपयोगिता से निर्धारित होता है। -wrong_answers: - - तुर्गो का मानना था कि मुक्त व्यापार सबसे अच्छी आर्थिक नीति है, जबकि स्मिथ संरक्षणवाद में विश्वास रखते थे। - - तुर्गो का मानना था कि सरकार की भूमिका बाज़ार को आज़ाद छोड़ने की होनी चाहिए, जबकि स्मिथ का मानना था कि सरकार को अर्थव्यवस्था में दख़ल देना चाहिए। - - तुर्गो और स्मिथ के सिद्धांतों में मूल्य पर कोई बुनियादी अंतर नहीं है। -explanation: | - तुर्गो ने श्रम को मूल्य का मुख्य निर्धारक माना, जबकि एडम स्मिथ ने उपयोगिता और मांग से प्रभावित मूल्य की अवधारणा पेश की, जो व्यक्तिपरक अर्थशास्त्र की झलक दिखाती है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1389dd94aa5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa perbedaan mendasar antara teori Turgot dan teori Adam Smith tentang nilai? -answer: Turgot percaya bahwa nilai ditentukan oleh tenaga kerja, sementara Smith percaya itu ditentukan oleh kegunaan. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot percaya bahwa perdagangan bebas adalah kebijakan ekonomi terbaik sementara Smith percaya dalam proteksionisme. - - Turgot percaya bahwa peran negara adalah untuk membiarkan pasar bebas sementara Smith percaya bahwa pemerintah harus campur tangan dalam ekonomi. - - Tidak ada perbedaan mendasar antara teori Turgot dan teori Smith tentang nilai. -explanation: | - Turgot menganggap tenaga kerja sebagai penentu utama nilai, sedangkan Adam Smith memperkenalkan sebuah konsep nilai yang dipengaruhi oleh kegunaan dan permintaan, meramalkan ekonomi subjektif. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a079f26cd9a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la differenza fondamentale tra le teorie di Turgot e quelle di Adam Smith sul valore? -answer: Turgot riteneva che il valore fosse determinato dal lavoro, mentre Smith credeva fosse determinato dall'utilità. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot riteneva che il libero scambio fosse la migliore politica economica mentre Smith credeva nel protezionismo. - - Turgot riteneva che il ruolo dello Stato fosse quello di lasciare libero il mercato mentre Smith credeva che il governo dovesse intervenire nell'economia. - - Non esiste una differenza fondamentale tra le teorie di Turgot e quelle di Smith sul valore. -explanation: | - Turgot considerava il lavoro come il principale determinante del valore, mentre Adam Smith introdusse una nozione di valore influenzata dall'utilità e dalla domanda, anticipando l'economia soggettiva. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1f1382f4b6c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: TurgotとAdam Smithの価値に関する理論の根本的な違いは何ですか？ -answer: Turgotは価値が労働によって決定されると考えていたのに対し、Smithはそれが効用によって決定されると考えていました。 -wrong_answers: - - Turgotは自由貿易が最良の経済政策だと考えていたのに対し、Smithは保護主義を支持していました。 - - Turgotは国家の役割は市場を自由にすることだと考えていたのに対し、Smithは政府が経済に介入すべきだと考えていました。 - - TurgotとSmithの価値に関する理論には根本的な違いはありません。 -explanation: | - Turgotは価値の主要な決定要因として労働を考えていましたが、Adam Smithは効用と需要に影響される価値の概念を導入し、主観的経済学を予見しました。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2eef99831ae..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 가치에 관한 투르고의 이론과 아담 스미스의 이론의 근본적인 차이점은 무엇인가요? -answer: 투르고는 가치가 노동에 의해 결정된다고 믿었고, 스미스는 효용에 의해 결정된다고 믿었습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 투르고는 자유무역이 최고의 경제 정책이라고 믿었고, 스미스는 보호무역주의를 믿었습니다. - - 투르고는 국가의 역할은 시장을 자유롭게 두는 것이라고 믿었고, 스미스는 정부가 경제에 개입해야 한다고 믿었습니다. - - 가치에 대한 투르고의 이론과 스미스의 이론 사이에는 근본적인 차이가 없습니다. -explanation: | - 투르고는 노동을 가치의 주요 결정 요인으로 간주한 반면, 아담 스미스는 효용과 수요의 영향을 받는 가치 개념을 도입하여 주관적 경제학을 예고했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1078133c8ce..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er den grunnleggende forskjellen mellom teoriene til Turgot og de til Adam Smith om verdi? -answer: Turgot mente at verdi ble bestemt av arbeid, mens Smith mente den ble bestemt av nytte. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot mente at frihandel var den beste økonomiske politikken mens Smith trodde på proteksjonisme. - - Turgot mente at statens rolle var å la markedet være fritt mens Smith mente at regjeringen skulle gripe inn i økonomien. - - Det er ingen grunnleggende forskjell mellom teoriene til Turgot og de til Smith om verdi. -explanation: | - Turgot anså arbeid som den viktigste determinanten for verdi, mens Adam Smith introduserte en oppfatning av verdi påvirket av nytte og etterspørsel, som forutså subjektiv økonomi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7e873150ec4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is het fundamentele verschil tussen de theorieën van Turgot en die van Adam Smith over waarde? -answer: Turgot geloofde dat waarde werd bepaald door arbeid, terwijl Smith geloofde dat waarde werd bepaald door nut. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot geloofde dat vrije handel het beste economische beleid was, terwijl Smith geloofde in protectionisme. - - Turgot geloofde dat de rol van de staat was om de markt vrij te laten, terwijl Smith geloofde dat de overheid moest ingrijpen in de economie. - - Er is geen fundamenteel verschil tussen de theorieën van Turgot en die van Smith over waarde. -explanation: | - Turgot beschouwde arbeid als de belangrijkste bepalende factor van waarde, terwijl Adam Smith een notie van waarde introduceerde die beïnvloed werd door nut en vraag, een voorbode van subjectieve economie. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b129bb7e291..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaka jest zasadnicza różnica między teoriami Turgota i Adama Smitha na temat wartości? -answer: Turgot uważał, że wartość jest określana przez pracę, podczas gdy Smith uważał, że jest ona określana przez użyteczność. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot wierzył, że wolny handel jest najlepszą polityką gospodarczą, podczas gdy Smith wierzył w protekcjonizm. - - Turgot wierzył, że rolą państwa jest pozostawienie wolnego rynku, podczas gdy Smith uważał, że rząd powinien interweniować w gospodarkę. - - Nie ma zasadniczej różnicy między teoriami Turgota i Smitha na temat wartości. -explanation: | - Turgot uważał pracę za główny wyznacznik wartości, podczas gdy Adam Smith wprowadził pojęcie wartości pod wpływem użyteczności i popytu, zapowiadając subiektywną ekonomię. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fd276fa89fc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a diferença fundamental entre as teorias de Turgot e as de Adam Smith sobre valor? -answer: Turgot acreditava que o valor era determinado pelo trabalho, enquanto Smith acreditava que era determinado pela utilidade. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot acreditava que o livre comércio era a melhor política econômica enquanto Smith acreditava no protecionismo. - - Turgot acreditava que o papel do estado era deixar o mercado livre enquanto Smith acreditava que o governo deveria intervir na economia. - - Não há diferença fundamental entre as teorias de Turgot e as de Smith sobre valor. -explanation: | - Turgot considerava o trabalho como o principal determinante do valor, enquanto Adam Smith introduziu uma noção de valor influenciada pela utilidade e demanda, antecipando a economia subjetiva. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0db78d521f0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni itandukaniro irihe ry’ishimikiro riri hagati y’ivyiyumviro vya Turgot n’ivya Adamu Smith ku bijanye n’agaciro? -answer: Turgot yarizera ko agaciro kagenwa n’igikorwa, mu gihe Smith we yizera ko kagenwa n’akamaro. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot yarizera ko ubudandaji bw’ubuntu ari bwo buryo bwiza kuruta ubundi bwose mu vy’ubutunzi, mu gihe Smith we yarizera ko uburinzi bw’ibintu. - - Turgot yarizera ko uruhara rwa Leta ari ugusiga isoko ry’ubuntu, mu gihe Smith yarizera ko Leta ikwiye kwivanga mu vy’ubutunzi. - - Nta tandukaniro ry’ishimikiro riri hagati y’ivyiyumviro vya Turgot n’ivya Smith ku bijanye n’agaciro. -explanation: | - Turgot yabona ko igikorwa ari co kintu nyamukuru kigena agaciro, mu gihe Adamu Smith yashizeho iciyumviro c’agaciro gikorwa n’akamaro n’ivyo umuntu asaba, bikaba vyari bigereranya ubutunzi bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d2806061ebd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: В чем заключается фундаментальное отличие теорий Тюрго от теорий Адама Смита о ценности? -answer: Тюрго считал, что ценность определяется трудом, в то время как Смит полагал, что она определяется полезностью. -wrong_answers: - - Тюрго считал, что свободная торговля является лучшей экономической политикой, в то время как Смит верил в протекционизм. - - Тюрго считал, что роль государства заключается в том, чтобы оставить рынок свободным, в то время как Смит считал, что правительство должно вмешиваться в экономику. - - Между теориями Тюрго и Смита о ценности нет фундаментального различия. -explanation: | - Тюрго рассматривал труд как основной детерминант ценности, в то время как Адам Смит ввел понятие ценности, подверженное влиянию полезности и спроса, предвосхищая субъективную экономику. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cbf3fb81041..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je fundamentalna razlika između teorija Turgota i onih Adama Smitha o vrednosti? -answer: Turgot je verovao da vrednost određuje rad, dok je Smit verovao da je određuje korisnost. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot je verovao da je slobodna trgovina najbolja ekonomska politika, dok je Smith verovao u protekcionizam. - - Turgot je verovao da je uloga države da ostavi tržište slobodnim, dok je Smit verovao da vlada treba da interveniše u ekonomiji. - - Ne postoji suštinska razlika između Turgotovih i Smithovih teorija o vrednosti. -explanation: | - Turgot je smatrao rad glavnim odrednikom vrednosti, dok je Adam Smit uveo pojam vrednosti pod uticajem korisnosti i potražnje, nagoveštavajući subjektivnu ekonomiju. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0ae12285c0c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är den grundläggande skillnaden mellan Turgots och Adam Smiths teorier om värde? -answer: Turgot menade att värdet bestämdes av arbete, medan Smith ansåg att det bestämdes av nytta. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot ansåg att frihandel var den bästa ekonomiska politiken, medan Smith trodde på protektionism. - - Turgot ansåg att statens roll var att lämna marknaden fri, medan Smith ansåg att staten borde ingripa i ekonomin. - - Det finns ingen grundläggande skillnad mellan Turgots och Smiths teorier om värde. -explanation: | - Turgot ansåg att arbetet var det som främst bestämde värdet, medan Adam Smith introducerade ett värdebegrepp som påverkades av nytta och efterfrågan, vilket var en föregångare till den subjektiva ekonomin. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index eda0df42881..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kuna tofauti gani ya kimsingi kati ya nadharia za Turgot na zile za Adam Smith juu ya thamani? -answer: Turgot aliamini kwamba thamani iliamuliwa na kazi, wakati Smith aliamini iliamuliwa na matumizi. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot aliamini kuwa biashara huria ndiyo sera bora ya kiuchumi huku Smith akiamini katika ulinzi. - - Turgot aliamini kuwa jukumu la serikali lilikuwa kuondoka sokoni bila malipo huku Smith akiamini kuwa serikali inapaswa kuingilia kati uchumi. - - Hakuna tofauti ya kimsingi kati ya nadharia za Turgot na zile za Smith juu ya thamani. -explanation: | - Turgot alizingatia kazi kama kigezo kikuu cha thamani, ilhali Adam Smith alianzisha dhana ya thamani inayoathiriwa na matumizi na mahitaji, ikionyesha hali ya uchumi inayojitegemea. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 21548dd209d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ความแตกต่างพื้นฐานระหว่างทฤษฎีของ Turgot และของ Adam Smith เกี่ยวกับมูลค่าอยู่ที่วิธีการที่พวกเขามองถึงแหล่งที่มาของมูลค่าและการกำหนดราคา Turgot เน้นที่บทบาทของการผลิตและการใช้แรงงานในกระบวนการสร้างมูลค่า ในขณะที่ Adam Smith มองว่ามูลค่ามาจากการแลกเปลี่ยนและการแบ่งงานในสังคม โดย Smith เชื่อว่ามูลค่าของสินค้าถูกกำหนดโดยแรงงานที่ใช้ในการผลิตสินค้านั้น ในขณะที่ Turgot ให้ความสำคัญกับการสะสมทุนและการลงทุนในกระบวนการผลิต -answer: Turgot เชื่อว่ามูลค่าถูกกำหนดโดยแรงงาน ในขณะที่ Smith เชื่อว่ามันถูกกำหนดโดยอรรถประโยชน์ -wrong_answers: - - Turgot เชื่อว่าการค้าเสรีเป็นนโยบายเศรษฐกิจที่ดีที่สุด ในขณะที่ Smith เชื่อในการปกป้องทางการค้า - - Turgot เชื่อว่าบทบาทของรัฐคือการปล่อยให้ตลาดเป็นอิสระ ในขณะที่ Smith เชื่อว่ารัฐบาลควรแทรกแซงในเศรษฐกิจ - - ไม่มีความแตกต่างพื้นฐานระหว่างทฤษฎีของเทอร์โกต์และสมิธเกี่ยวกับมูลค่า -explanation: | - Turgot พิจารณาว่าแรงงานเป็นตัวกำหนดมูลค่าหลัก ในขณะที่ Adam Smith แนะนำแนวคิดของมูลค่าที่ได้รับอิทธิพลจากประโยชน์ใช้สอยและอุปสงค์ ซึ่งเป็นการบอกล่วงหน้าเกี่ยวกับเศรษฐศาสตร์เชิงอัตวิสัย -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bc66b630797..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Turgot'nun ve Adam Smith'in değer teorileri arasındaki temel fark nedir? -answer: Turgot, değerin emek tarafından belirlendiğine inanırken, Smith bunun fayda tarafından belirlendiğine inanıyordu. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot serbest ticaretin en iyi ekonomi politikası olduğuna inanırken, Smith korumacılığa inanıyordu. - - Turgot devletin rolünün piyasayı serbest bırakmak olduğuna inanırken, Smith hükümetin ekonomiye müdahale etmesi gerektiğine inanıyordu. - - Turgot'nun ve Smith'in değer teorileri arasında temel bir fark yoktur. -explanation: | - Turgot emeği değerin ana belirleyicisi olarak görürken, Adam Smith fayda ve talepten etkilenen ve öznel iktisadın habercisi olan bir değer kavramı ortaya atmıştır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 37cc46ac219..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Sự khác biệt cơ bản giữa lý thuyết của Turgot và lý thuyết của Adam Smith về giá trị là gì? -answer: Turgot tin rằng giá trị được quyết định bởi lao động, trong khi Smith tin rằng nó được quyết định bởi tính hữu ích. -wrong_answers: - - Turgot tin rằng tự do thương mại là chính sách kinh tế tốt nhất trong khi Smith tin vào chủ nghĩa bảo hộ. - - Turgot tin rằng vai trò của nhà nước là để thị trường tự do trong khi Smith tin rằng chính phủ nên can thiệp vào nền kinh tế. - - Không có sự khác biệt cơ bản nào giữa lý thuyết của Turgot và Smith về giá trị. -explanation: | - Turgot coi lao động là yếu tố quyết định chính của giá trị, trong khi Adam Smith đã đưa ra một khái niệm về giá trị được ảnh hưởng bởi tính hữu ích và nhu cầu, tiên đoán về kinh tế học chủ quan. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f6f92e2d35c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Turgot和Adam Smith关于价值的理论有什么根本区别？ -answer: Turgot认为价值由劳动决定，而Smith认为它是由效用决定的。 -wrong_answers: - - Turgot认为自由贸易是最佳经济政策，而Smith则相信保护主义。 - - Turgot认为国家的角色是让市场自由，而Smith认为政府应该干预经济。 - - Turgot和Smith关于价值的理论之间没有根本区别。 -explanation: | - Turgot将劳动视为价值的主要决定因素，而Adam Smith引入了一个受效用和需求影响的价值概念，预示着主观经济学的出现。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 085ee451faf..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/076/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 圖爾戈的價值理論與亞當‧斯密的價值理論有什麼根本的差異？ -answer: Turgot 認為價值是由勞動力決定的，而 Smith 則認為價值是由效用決定的。 -wrong_answers: - - Turgot 相信自由貿易是最好的經濟政策，而 Smith 則相信保護主義。 - - Turgot認為國家的角色是讓市場自由發展，而Smith則認為政府應該介入經濟。 - - 在價值方面，Turgot 與 Smith 的理論沒有根本的差異。 -explanation: | - 圖爾戈 (Turgot) 認為勞動是價值的主要決定因素，而亞當‧斯密 (Adam Smith) 則提出了受效用與需求影響的價值觀念，預示了主觀經濟學的來臨。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1dc41e4eefe..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Кой е най-известният принос на Адам Смит към икономиката? -answer: Той разработва теорията за невидимата ръка. -wrong_answers: - - Той разработва теорията за видимия пръст. - - Той разработва теорията за невидимия пръст. - - Той разработва теорията за видимата ръка. -explanation: | - Адам Смит е известен с теорията си за невидимата ръка, според която индивидуалните действия, мотивирани от личен интерес, непреднамерено допринасят за общото икономическо благосъстояние на обществото. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f29038a15cd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaký je nejznámější přínos Adama Smithe k ekonomii? -answer: Vyvinul teorii neviditelné ruky. -wrong_answers: - - Vyvinul teorii viditelného prstu. - - Vyvinul teorii neviditelného prstu. - - Vyvinul teorii viditelné ruky. -explanation: | - Adam Smith je známý díky své teorii neviditelné ruky, která tvrdí, že jednotlivé akce motivované vlastním zájmem neúmyslně přispívají k ekonomickému blahobytu společnosti jako celku. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6cd5cc920f9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist Adam Smiths bekanntester Beitrag zur Ökonomie? -answer: Er entwickelte die Theorie der unsichtbaren Hand. -wrong_answers: - - Er entwickelte die Theorie des sichtbaren Fingers. - - Er entwickelte die Theorie des unsichtbaren Fingers. - - Er entwickelte die Theorie der sichtbaren Hand. -explanation: | - Adam Smith ist bekannt für seine Theorie der unsichtbaren Hand, die besagt, dass individuelle Handlungen, die durch Eigeninteresse motiviert sind, unbeabsichtigt zum wirtschaftlichen Wohlstand der Gesellschaft als Ganzes beitragen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/en.yml index 125a1ae59f8..bdc1288460c 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: What is Adam Smith's most well-known contribution to economics? answer: He developed the theory of the invisible hand. wrong_answers: - - He developed the theory of the visible finger. - - He developed the theory of the invisible finger. - - He developed the theory of the visible hand. + - He formulated the labor theory of value as the foundation of political economy. + - He argued that state intervention is essential to prevent market failures. + - He demonstrated that trade between nations is always a zero-sum game. explanation: | Adam Smith is known for his theory of the invisible hand, which posits that individual actions motivated by self-interest unintentionally contribute to the overall economic well-being of society. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ee5bcbc9574..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la contribución más conocida de Adam Smith a la economía? -answer: Desarrolló la teoría de la mano invisible. -wrong_answers: - - Desarrolló la teoría del dedo visible. - - Desarrolló la teoría del dedo invisible. - - Desarrolló la teoría de la mano visible. -explanation: | - Adam Smith es conocido por su teoría de la mano invisible, que postula que las acciones individuales motivadas por el interés propio contribuyen involuntariamente al bienestar económico de la sociedad en su conjunto. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ca97ba3e4eb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Adam Smithi kõige tuntum panus majandusteadusesse? -answer: Ta arendas välja nähtamatu käe teooria. -wrong_answers: - - Ta arendas välja nähtava sõrme teooria. - - Ta arendas välja nähtamatu sõrme teooria. - - Ta arendas välja nähtava käe teooria. -explanation: | - Adam Smith on tuntud oma nähtamatu käe teooria poolest, mis väidab, et üksikisikute omakasust motiveeritud tegevused aitavad tahtmatult kaasa ühiskonna majanduslikule heaolule tervikuna. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 80e926cea02..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: مهم‌ترین مشارکت آدام اسمیت در اقتصاد چیست؟ -answer: او نظریه دست نامرئی را توسعه داد. -wrong_answers: - - او نظریه انگشت قابل مشاهده را توسعه داد. - - او نظریه انگشت نامرئی را توسعه داد. - - او نظریه دست مرئی را توسعه داد. -explanation: | - آدام اسمیت به خاطر نظریه دست نامرئی شناخته می‌شود، که بیان می‌کند اقدامات فردی که با انگیزه منافع شخصی انجام می‌شوند، به طور ناخواسته به رفاه اقتصادی کل جامعه کمک می‌کنند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9a42be420ee..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Adam Smithin tunnetuin panos taloustieteeseen? -answer: Hän kehitti näkymättömän käden teorian. -wrong_answers: - - Hän kehitti näkyvän sormen teorian. - - Hän kehitti näkymättömän sormen teorian. - - Hän kehitti näkyvän käden teorian. -explanation: | - Adam Smith tunnetaan näkymättömän käden teoriastaan, jonka mukaan yksilöiden itsekkäistä motiiveista kumpuavat toimet edistävät tahattomasti yhteiskunnan taloudellista hyvinvointia kokonaisuutena. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fr.yml index 5377e2483ef..7d2a80615d8 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Quelle est la contribution la plus connue d'Adam Smith à l'économie ? answer: Il a développé la théorie de la main invisible. wrong_answers: - - Il a développé la théorie du doigt visible. - - Il a développé la théorie du doigt invisible. - - Il a développé la théorie de la main visible. + - Il a formulé la théorie de la valeur-travail comme fondement de l'économie politique. + - Il a soutenu que l'intervention de l'État est essentielle pour prévenir les défaillances du marché. + - Il a démontré que le commerce entre nations est toujours un jeu à somme nulle. explanation: | Adam Smith est connu pour sa théorie de la main invisible, qui postule que les actions individuelles motivées par l'intérêt personnel contribuent, de manière non intentionnelle, au bien-être économique de la société dans son ensemble. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5aa82e15a8f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: एडम स्मिथ का अर्थशास्त्र में सबसे मशहूर योगदान क्या है? -answer: उसने "अदृश्य हाथ" के सिद्धांत को विकसित किया। -wrong_answers: - - उसने "दृश्यमान उंगली" का सिद्धांत विकसित किया। - - उसने "अदृश्य उंगली" का सिद्धांत विकसित किया। - - उसने "दृश्यमान हाथ" (visible hand) का सिद्धांत विकसित किया। -explanation: | - एडम स्मिथ अपने "अदृश्य हाथ" के सिद्धांत के लिए मशहूर हैं, जो कहता है कि स्वार्थ से प्रेरित व्यक्तिगत कार्य अनजाने में पूरे समाज की आर्थिक भलाई में योगदान देते हैं। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9f44dc0425f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa kontribusi terkenal Adam Smith dalam ekonomi? -answer: Dia mengembangkan teori tangan tak terlihat. -wrong_answers: - - Dia mengembangkan teori jari terlihat. - - Dia mengembangkan teori jari tak terlihat. - - Dia mengembangkan teori tangan terlihat. -explanation: | - Adam Smith dikenal karena teorinya tentang tangan tak terlihat, yang menyatakan bahwa tindakan individu yang dimotivasi oleh kepentingan pribadi secara tidak sengaja berkontribusi pada kesejahteraan ekonomi masyarakat secara keseluruhan. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5d56e6c1d4f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è il contributo più noto di Adam Smith all'economia? -answer: Ha sviluppato la teoria della mano invisibile. -wrong_answers: - - Ha sviluppato la teoria del dito visibile. - - Ha sviluppato la teoria del dito invisibile. - - Ha sviluppato la teoria della mano visibile. -explanation: | - Adam Smith è noto per la sua teoria della mano invisibile, che sostiene che le azioni individuali motivate dall'interesse personale contribuiscano involontariamente al benessere economico della società nel suo insieme. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index efe7a70ce9b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: アダム・スミスが経済学において最もよく知られている貢献は何ですか？ -answer: 彼は「見えざる手」の理論を開発しました。 -wrong_answers: - - 彼は「見える指」の理論を開発しました。 - - 彼は「見えざる指」の理論を開発しました。 - - 彼は「見える手」の理論を開発しました。 -explanation: | - アダム・スミスは、「見えざる手」の理論で知られています。この理論は、個人の自己利益に動機づけられた行動が、意図せずして社会全体の経済的福祉に貢献すると主張しています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 086488fdfe0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 아담 스미스의 경제학에 대한 가장 잘 알려진 공헌은 무엇인가요? -answer: 그는 보이지 않는 손 이론을 개발했습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 그는 보이는 손가락 이론을 개발했습니다. - - 그는 보이지 않는 손가락 이론을 개발했습니다. - - 그는 보이는 손 이론을 개발했습니다. -explanation: | - 아담 스미스는 이기심에 의해 동기 부여된 개인의 행동이 의도치 않게 사회의 전반적인 경제적 복지에 기여한다는 '보이지 않는 손' 이론으로 유명합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 805fcf3e846..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er Adam Smiths mest kjente bidrag til økonomien? -answer: Han utviklet teorien om den usynlige hånd. -wrong_answers: - - Han utviklet teorien om den synlige fingeren. - - Han utviklet teorien om den usynlige fingeren. - - Han utviklet teorien om den synlige hånd. -explanation: | - Adam Smith er kjent for sin teori om den usynlige hånd, som hevder at individuelle handlinger motivert av egeninteresse utilsiktet bidrar til samfunnets økonomiske velvære som helhet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8feba5306a4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de bekendste bijdrage van Adam Smith aan de economie? -answer: Hij ontwikkelde de theorie van de onzichtbare hand. -wrong_answers: - - Hij ontwikkelde de theorie van de zichtbare vinger. - - Hij ontwikkelde de theorie van de onzichtbare vinger. - - Hij ontwikkelde de theorie van de zichtbare hand. -explanation: | - Adam Smith staat bekend om zijn theorie van de onzichtbare hand, die stelt dat individuele acties gemotiveerd door eigenbelang onbedoeld bijdragen aan het algemene economische welzijn van de samenleving. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index feb49f1bcf9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest najbardziej znany wkład Adama Smitha w ekonomię? -answer: Opracował teorię niewidzialnej ręki. -wrong_answers: - - Opracował teorię widzialnego palca. - - Opracował teorię niewidzialnego palca. - - Opracował teorię widzialnej ręki. -explanation: | - Adam Smith jest znany ze swojej teorii niewidzialnej ręki, która zakłada, że indywidualne działania motywowane własnym interesem nieumyślnie przyczyniają się do dobrobytu gospodarczego społeczeństwa jako całości. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 27191e39a05..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a contribuição mais conhecida de Adam Smith para a economia? -answer: Ele desenvolveu a teoria da mão invisível. -wrong_answers: - - Ele desenvolveu a teoria do dedo visível. - - Ele desenvolveu a teoria do dedo invisível. - - Ele desenvolveu a teoria da mão visível. -explanation: | - Adam Smith é conhecido por sua teoria da mão invisível, que postula que ações individuais motivadas pelo auto-interesse contribuem involuntariamente para o bem-estar econômico da sociedade como um todo. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e9b95bd524a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni ikihe kintu kizwi cane Adamu Smith yagize mu vy’ubutunzi? -answer: Yarateye imbere inyigisho y’ukuboko kutaboneka. -wrong_answers: - - Yarateye imbere inyigisho y’urutoke ruboneka. - - Yarateye imbere inyigisho y’urutoke rutaboneka. - - Yarateye imbere inyigisho y’ukuboko kuboneka. -explanation: | - Adamu Smith azwi cane kubera inyigisho yiwe y’ukuboko kutaboneka, ivuga ko ibikorwa vy’umuntu ku giti ciwe bivyurwa n’inyungu z’umuntu ku giti ciwe bifasha ataco bigamije kugira ngo ubutunzi bw’abantu muri rusangi bube bwiza. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b5f706b93dc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Каков самый известный вклад Адама Смита в экономику? -answer: Он разработал теорию невидимой руки. -wrong_answers: - - Он разработал теорию видимого пальца. - - Он разработал теорию невидимого пальца. - - Он разработал теорию видимой руки. -explanation: | - Адам Смит известен своей теорией невидимой руки, которая утверждает, что действия отдельных лиц, мотивированные собственным интересом, непреднамеренно способствуют экономическому благосостоянию общества в целом. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 700c23fd887..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koji je najpoznatiji doprinos Adama Smitha ekonomiji? -answer: Razvio je teoriju nevidljive ruke. -wrong_answers: - - Razvio je teoriju vidljivog prsta. - - Razvio je teoriju nevidljivog prsta. - - Razvio je teoriju vidljive ruke. -explanation: | - Adam Smith je poznat po svojoj teoriji nevidljive ruke, koja tvrdi da individualne akcije motivisane ličnim interesom nenamerno doprinose ekonomskom blagostanju društva u celini. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 443763c7f27..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilket är Adam Smiths mest välkända bidrag till nationalekonomin? -answer: Han utvecklade teorin om den osynliga handen. -wrong_answers: - - Han utvecklade teorin om det synliga fingret. - - Han utvecklade teorin om det osynliga fingret. - - Han utvecklade teorin om den synliga handen. -explanation: | - Adam Smith är känd för sin teori om den osynliga handen, som går ut på att individuella handlingar som motiveras av egenintresse oavsiktligt bidrar till samhällets övergripande ekonomiska välstånd. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d733d7e36c0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Je, ni mchango gani unaojulikana zaidi wa Adam Smith katika uchumi? -answer: Aliendeleza nadharia ya mkono usioonekana. -wrong_answers: - - Aliendeleza nadharia ya kidole kinachoonekana. - - Aliendeleza nadharia ya kidole kisichoonekana. - - Aliendeleza nadharia ya mkono unaoonekana. -explanation: | - Adam Smith anajulikana kwa nadharia yake ya mkono usioonekana, ambayo inasisitiza kwamba vitendo vya mtu binafsi vinavyochochewa na ubinafsi bila kukusudia huchangia ustawi wa kiuchumi wa jamii kwa ujumla. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e122a78ecb5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ผลงานที่มีชื่อเสียงที่สุดของ Adam Smith ในด้านเศรษฐศาสตร์คืออะไร? -answer: เขาได้พัฒนาทฤษฎีของมือที่มองไม่เห็น -wrong_answers: - - เขาได้พัฒนาทฤษฎีนิ้วที่มองเห็นได้ - - เขาได้พัฒนาทฤษฎีนิ้วที่มองไม่เห็น - - เขาได้พัฒนาทฤษฎีของมือที่มองเห็นได้ -explanation: | - อดัม สมิธ เป็นที่รู้จักจากทฤษฎีมือที่มองไม่เห็น ซึ่งเสนอว่าการกระทำของแต่ละบุคคลที่มีแรงจูงใจจากผลประโยชน์ส่วนตนจะมีส่วนช่วยโดยไม่ตั้งใจต่อความเป็นอยู่ทางเศรษฐกิจโดยรวมของสังคม -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26da93dc067..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Adam Smith'in ekonomi bilimine en bilinen katkısı nedir? -answer: Görünmez el teorisini geliştirdi. -wrong_answers: - - Görünür parmak teorisini geliştirdi. - - Görünmez parmak teorisini geliştirdi. - - Görünür el teorisini geliştirdi. -explanation: | - Adam Smith, kendi çıkarları doğrultusunda hareket eden bireysel eylemlerin istemeden de olsa toplumun genel ekonomik refahına katkıda bulunduğunu öne süren görünmez el teorisiyle tanınır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f2a34d1b9c5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Đóng góp nổi tiếng nhất của Adam Smith cho kinh tế học là gì? -answer: Ông đã phát triển lý thuyết về bàn tay vô hình. -wrong_answers: - - Ông đã phát triển lý thuyết về ngón tay hữu hình. - - Ông đã phát triển lý thuyết về ngón tay vô hình. - - Ông đã phát triển lý thuyết về bàn tay hữu hình. -explanation: | - Adam Smith được biết đến với lý thuyết về bàn tay vô hình, mà cho rằng các hành động cá nhân được thúc đẩy bởi lợi ích cá nhân một cách không chủ ý góp phần vào sự thịnh vượng kinh tế của xã hội như một toàn thể. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a71e2ecd4bf..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 亚当·斯密对经济学最著名的贡献是什么？ -answer: 他发展了“看不见的手”理论。 -wrong_answers: - - 他发展了“可见的手指”理论。 - - 他发展了“看不见的手指”理论。 - - 他发展了“可见的手”理论。 -explanation: | - 亚当·斯密因其“看不见的手”理论而闻名，该理论认为，个体出于自身利益的行动无意中促进了整个社会的经济福祉。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bd229722a27..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/078/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 亞當‧斯密對經濟學最知名的貢獻是什麼？ -answer: 他提出了隱形之手的理論。 -wrong_answers: - - 他提出了可見手指的理論。 - - 他提出了隱形手指的理論。 - - 他提出了有形之手的理論。 -explanation: | - 亞當‧斯密 (Adam Smith) 以其「看不見的手」理論而聞名，該理論認為，個人為了自身利益而採取的行動會無意中促進整個社會的經濟福祉。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9ff8f5723d4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Според Констант кои са областите, в които политическата власт няма влияние? -answer: Всички области, споменати по-горе (религия, наука, индустрия). -wrong_answers: - - Религия - - Наука - - Индустрия -explanation: | - Констант смята, че политическата власт не трябва да се намесва в области като религията, науката и промишлеността, за да се запази индивидуалната свобода и автономността на човешките дейности, които попадат в частната сфера. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d695f48c95e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Podle Constanta, ve kterých oblastech nemá politická moc žádný vliv? -answer: Ve všech výše uvedených oblastech (náboženství, věda, průmysl). -wrong_answers: - - Náboženství - - Věda - - Průmysl -explanation: | - Constant věří, že politická moc by neměla zasahovat do oblastí jako jsou náboženství, věda a průmysl, aby se zachovala individuální svoboda a autonomie lidských činností, které spadají do soukromé sféry. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 83296bfb96d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Welches sind laut Constant die Bereiche, in denen politische Macht keinen Einfluss hat? -answer: Alle oben genannten Bereiche (Religion, Wissenschaft, Industrie). -wrong_answers: - - Religion - - Wissenschaft - - Industrie -explanation: | - Constant ist der Meinung, dass politische Macht sich nicht in Bereiche wie Religion, Wissenschaft und Industrie einmischen sollte, um die individuelle Freiheit und die Autonomie menschlicher Aktivitäten, die in den privaten Bereich fallen, zu bewahren. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/en.yml index 5d79fefe2ef..e042607a87f 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -question: According to Constant, what are the areas in which political power has no influence? -answer: All the domains mentioned above (religion, science, industry). +question: According to Constant, what limits the sovereignty of the people? +answer: Justice and the rights of individuals. wrong_answers: - - Religion - - Science - - Industry + - The will of the majority expressed through elections. + - The authority of the monarch and the aristocracy. + - International treaties and alliances between nations. explanation: | - Constant believes that political power should not intervene in areas such as religion, science, and industry, to preserve individual freedom and the autonomy of human activities that fall within the private sphere. + Benjamin Constant asserts that the sovereignty of the people is not unlimited but is circumscribed within the bounds traced by justice and the rights of individuals. The will of an entire people cannot make just what is unjust, as natural law sets limits on political power. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b5f69c12f5b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Según Constant, ¿En qué áreas el poder político no tiene influencia? -answer: Todos los dominios mencionados anteriormente (religión, ciencia, industria). -wrong_answers: - - Religión - - Ciencia - - Industria -explanation: | - Constant cree que el poder político no debería intervenir en áreas como la religión, la ciencia y la industria, con el fin de preservar la libertad individual y la autonomía de las actividades humanas que caen dentro de la esfera privada. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fd6d24e4bd0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Millistes valdkondades ei oma poliitiline võim Constanti sõnul mõju? -answer: Kõik eelpool mainitud valdkonnad (religioon, teadus, tööstus). -wrong_answers: - - Religioon - - Teadus - - Tööstus -explanation: | - Constant usub, et poliitiline võim ei tohiks sekkuda sellistesse valdkondadesse nagu religioon, teadus ja tööstus, et säilitada individuaalne vabadus ja inimtegevuse autonoomia, mis kuuluvad eraelu sfääri. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d5abf9f6f0d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: بر اساس نظر کنستانت، حوزه‌هایی که قدرت سیاسی در آن‌ها تأثیری ندارد کدامند؟ -answer: همه حوزه‌های ذکر شده در بالا (دین، علم، صنعت). -wrong_answers: - - دین - - علم - - صنعت -explanation: | - کنستانت معتقد است که قدرت سیاسی نباید در حوزه‌هایی مانند دین، علم و صنعت مداخله کند تا آزادی فردی و خودمختاری فعالیت‌های انسانی که در حوزه خصوصی قرار می‌گیرند، حفظ شود. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d84ee1aed49..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mitkä ovat alueet, joilla Constantin mukaan poliittisella vallalla ei ole vaikutusta? -answer: Kaikki yllä mainitut alueet (uskonto, tiede, teollisuus). -wrong_answers: - - Uskonto - - Tiede - - Teollisuus -explanation: | - Constant uskoo, että poliittisen vallan ei tulisi puuttua sellaisiin alueisiin kuin uskonto, tiede ja teollisuus, jotta voidaan säilyttää yksilön vapaus ja ihmisen toimintojen autonomia, jotka kuuluvat yksityiseen sfääriin. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fr.yml index fcba4d59a38..92e735860f0 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -question: Selon Constant, quels sont les domaines dans lesquels le pouvoir politique n'a aucune influence ? -answer: Tous les domaines mentionnés ci-dessus (religion, sciences, industrie). +question: Selon Constant, qu'est-ce qui limite la souveraineté du peuple ? +answer: La justice et les droits des individus. wrong_answers: - - La religion - - Les sciences - - L'industrie + - La volonté de la majorité exprimée par les élections. + - L'autorité du monarque et de l'aristocratie. + - Les traités internationaux et les alliances entre nations. explanation: | - Constant estime que le pouvoir politique ne doit pas intervenir dans des domaines comme la religion, les sciences et l'industrie, afin de préserver la liberté individuelle et l'autonomie des activités humaines qui relèvent de la sphère privée. -reviewed: true + Benjamin Constant affirme que la souveraineté du peuple n'est pas illimitée, mais est circonscrite dans les bornes tracées par la justice et les droits des individus. La volonté de tout un peuple ne peut rendre juste ce qui est injuste, car le droit naturel fixe des limites au pouvoir politique. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fb8fc7f2714..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: कॉन्स्टेंट के अनुसार, राजनीतिक सत्ता का किन क्षेत्रों में कोई प्रभाव नहीं होता है? -answer: ऊपर बताए गए सभी क्षेत्र (धर्म, विज्ञान, उद्योग)। -wrong_answers: - - धर्म - - विज्ञान - - उद्योग -explanation: | - कॉन्स्टेंट का मानना है कि राजनीतिक सत्ता को धर्म, विज्ञान और उद्योग जैसे क्षेत्रों में दखल नहीं देना चाहिए, ताकि व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता और निजी क्षेत्र में आने वाली मानवीय गतिविधियों की स्वायत्तता बनी रहे। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6fa5a071567..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Menurut Constant, apa saja area di mana kekuasaan politik tidak memiliki pengaruh? -answer: Semua domain yang disebutkan di atas (agama, sains, industri). -wrong_answers: - - Agama - - Sains - - Industri -explanation: | - Constant percaya bahwa kekuasaan politik tidak seharusnya campur tangan dalam area seperti agama, sains, dan industri, untuk menjaga kebebasan individu dan otonomi aktivitas manusia yang masuk dalam ranah pribadi. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 491f9eb5ae1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Secondo Constant, quali sono le aree nelle quali il potere politico non ha influenza? -answer: Tutti i domini menzionati sopra (religione, scienza, industria). -wrong_answers: - - Religione - - Scienza - - Industria -explanation: | - Constant ritiene che il potere politico non dovrebbe intervenire in aree come la religione, la scienza e l'industria, al fine di preservare la libertà individuale e l'autonomia delle attività umane che rientrano nella sfera privata. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 60f2236ce7c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Constantによると、政治権力が影響を及ぼさない分野はどれですか？ -answer: 上記のすべての領域（宗教、科学、産業）。 -wrong_answers: - - 宗教 - - 科学 - - 産業 -explanation: | - Constantは、個人の自由と私的領域に属する人間活動の自律性を保持するために、政治権力は宗教、科学、産業などの分野に介入すべきではないと考えています。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ea09867da18..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Constant에 따르면 정치 권력이 영향을 미치지 않는 영역은 무엇인가요? -answer: 위에서 언급한 모든 도메인(종교, 과학, 산업). -wrong_answers: - - 종교 - - 과학 - - 산업 -explanation: | - Constant는 개인의 자유와 사적 영역에 속하는 인간 활동의 자율성을 지키기 위해 종교, 과학, 산업 등의 영역에 정치 권력이 개입해서는 안 된다고 믿습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fcd47a74505..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Ifølge Constant, hvilke områder har politisk makt ingen innflytelse? -answer: Alle de nevnte områdene ovenfor (religion, vitenskap, industri). -wrong_answers: - - Religion - - Vitenskap - - Industri -explanation: | - Constant mener at politisk makt ikke bør gripe inn i områder som religion, vitenskap og industri, for å bevare individuell frihet og autonomien til menneskelige aktiviteter som faller innenfor det private området. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f04cb53a525..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat zijn volgens Constant de gebieden waarop politieke macht geen invloed heeft? -answer: Alle bovengenoemde domeinen (religie, wetenschap, industrie). -wrong_answers: - - Religie - - Wetenschap - - Industrie -explanation: | - Constant is van mening dat de politieke macht zich niet moet bemoeien met zaken als religie, wetenschap en industrie, om de individuele vrijheid en de autonomie van menselijke activiteiten die binnen de privésfeer vallen te behouden. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5878402ccf8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakie są według Constanta obszary, na które władza polityczna nie ma wpływu? -answer: Wszystkie wyżej wymienione dziedziny (religia, nauka, przemysł). -wrong_answers: - - Religia - - Nauka - - Przemysł -explanation: | - Constant uważa, że władza polityczna nie powinna interweniować w obszarach takich jak religia, nauka i przemysł, aby zachować wolność jednostki i autonomię ludzkich działań, które należą do sfery prywatnej. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 422329ed323..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Segundo Constant, quais são as áreas nas quais o poder político não tem influência? -answer: Todos os domínios mencionados acima (religião, ciência, indústria). -wrong_answers: - - Religião - - Ciência - - Indústria -explanation: | - Constant acredita que o poder político não deve intervir em áreas como religião, ciência e indústria, a fim de preservar a liberdade individual e a autonomia das atividades humanas que se enquadram na esfera privada. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 68968eaf4a2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Nk’uko Constant abivuga, ni ibihe bintu ububasha bwa politike butagira ico bukozeko? -answer: Ivyo vyose twavuze haruguru (idini, ubuhinga, inganda). -wrong_answers: - - Idini - - Siyansi - - Ishami -explanation: | - Constant abona ko ububasha bwa politike butakwiye kwivanga mu bintu nk’idini, ubuhinga n’inganda, kugira ngo umuntu azigame umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe n’ukwigenga kw’ibikorwa vya muntu bigwa mu rwego rw’abantu ku giti cabo. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 26e4a890ae6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Согласно Константу, в каких областях политическая власть не имеет влияния? -answer: Во всех вышеупомянутых сферах (религия, наука, промышленность). -wrong_answers: - - Религия - - Наука - - Промышленность -explanation: | - Констант считает, что политическая власть не должна вмешиваться в такие области, как религия, наука и промышленность, чтобы сохранить индивидуальную свободу и автономию человеческой деятельности, которая относится к частной сфере. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 49132715906..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Prema Constantu, koje su oblasti u kojima politička moć nema uticaja? -answer: Svi gore pomenuti domeni (religija, nauka, industrija). -wrong_answers: - - Religija - - Nauka - - Industrija -explanation: | - Constant veruje da politička moć ne treba da interveniše u oblastima kao što su religija, nauka i industrija, kako bi se očuvala individualna sloboda i autonomija ljudskih aktivnosti koje spadaju u privatnu sferu. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 39b28b75c59..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilka är enligt Constant de områden där den politiska makten inte har något inflytande? -answer: Alla de områden som nämns ovan (religion, vetenskap, industri). -wrong_answers: - - Religion - - Vetenskap - - Industri -explanation: | - Constant anser att den politiska makten inte ska ingripa i områden som religion, vetenskap och industri, för att bevara individens frihet och autonomin för mänskliga aktiviteter som faller inom den privata sfären. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8cc50c15c55..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kulingana na Constant, ni maeneo gani ambayo mamlaka ya kisiasa hayana ushawishi? -answer: Vikoa vyote vilivyotajwa hapo juu (dini, sayansi, tasnia). -wrong_answers: - - Dini - - Sayansi - - Viwanda -explanation: | - Constant anaamini kwamba mamlaka ya kisiasa haipaswi kuingilia kati maeneo kama vile dini, sayansi, na tasnia, ili kuhifadhi uhuru wa mtu binafsi na uhuru wa shughuli za kibinadamu ambazo ziko ndani ya nyanja ya kibinafsi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c40e222ce32..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ตามที่ Constant กล่าวไว้ มีพื้นที่ใดบ้างที่อำนาจทางการเมืองไม่มีอิทธิพล? -answer: โดเมนทั้งหมดที่กล่าวถึงข้างต้น (ศาสนา, วิทยาศาสตร์, อุตสาหกรรม) -wrong_answers: - - ศาสนา - - วิทยาศาสตร์ - - อุตสาหกรรม -explanation: | - Constant เชื่อว่าผลประโยชน์ทางการเมืองไม่ควรแทรกแซงในด้านต่างๆ เช่น ศาสนา วิทยาศาสตร์ และอุตสาหกรรม เพื่อรักษาเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคลและความเป็นอิสระของกิจกรรมมนุษย์ที่อยู่ในขอบเขตส่วนตัว -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4893d7873bb..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Constant'a göre, siyasi gücün etkisinin olmadığı alanlar nelerdir? -answer: Yukarıda bahsedilen tüm alanlar (din, bilim, sanayi). -wrong_answers: - - Din - - Bilim - - Endüstri -explanation: | - Constant, bireysel özgürlüğü ve özel alana giren insan faaliyetlerinin özerkliğini korumak için siyasi iktidarın din, bilim ve sanayi gibi alanlara müdahale etmemesi gerektiğine inanmaktadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5373a474c4f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Theo Constant, những lĩnh vực nào mà quyền lực chính trị không có ảnh hưởng? -answer: Tất cả các lĩnh vực được đề cập ở trên (tôn giáo, khoa học, công nghiệp). -wrong_answers: - - Tôn giáo - - Khoa học - - Công nghiệp -explanation: | - Constant tin rằng quyền lực chính trị không nên can thiệp vào các lĩnh vực như tôn giáo, khoa học và công nghiệp, nhằm bảo tồn tự do cá nhân và sự tự chủ của các hoạt động con người thuộc về phạm vi riêng tư. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index eaba3c75f68..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 根据康斯坦特的观点，政治权力没有影响力的领域有哪些？ -answer: 上述所有领域（宗教、科学、工业）。 -wrong_answers: - - 宗教 - - 科学 - - 工业 -explanation: - 康斯坦特认为，政治权力不应干预宗教、科学和工业等领域，以保护个人自由和属于私人领域的人类活动的自主性。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7797bcb0d19..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/087/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Constant 認為，哪些領域的政治權力沒有影響力？ -answer: 上述所有領域（宗教、科學、工業）。 -wrong_answers: - - 宗教信仰 - - 科學 - - 產業 -explanation: | - Constant 認為政治權力不應該介入宗教、科學和工業等領域，以維護屬於私人領域的個人自由和人類活動的自主性。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 77eee4239d5..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Кой е основният източник на човешкото отчуждение според Маркс? -answer: Икономическо отчуждение в резултат на капиталистическата експлоатация. -wrong_answers: - - Политическо отчуждение, което пречи на гражданите да се изразяват свободно. - - Религиозно отчуждение, което прикрива реалността на социалната несправедливост. - - Отчуждаване от американската култура. -explanation: | - Според Маркс човешкото отчуждение се корени в икономическото отчуждение, когато работникът е лишен от плодовете на своя труд в условията на капитализма, което води до загуба на контрол и смисъл на неговото съществуване. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9f1955029ea..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaká je podle Marxe hlavní příčina lidské odcizenosti? -answer: Ekonomická odcizenost vyplývající z kapitalistického vykořisťování. -wrong_answers: - - Politická odcizenost, která brání občanům ve svobodném vyjadřování. - - Náboženská odcizenost, která maskuje realitu sociálních nespravedlností. - - Odcizení od americké kultury. -explanation: | - Podle Marxe je lidská odcizenost zakořeněna v ekonomické odcizenosti, kde je pracovník připraven o plody své práce v kapitalismu, což vede ke ztrátě kontroly a smyslu v jeho existenci. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 72ba7813c39..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist laut Marx die primäre Quelle der menschlichen Entfremdung? -answer: Ökonomische Entfremdung, die aus kapitalistischer Ausbeutung resultiert. -wrong_answers: - - Politische Entfremdung, die Bürger daran hindert, sich frei auszudrücken. - - Religiöse Entfremdung, die die Realität sozialer Ungerechtigkeiten verschleiert. - - Entfremdung von der amerikanischen Kultur. -explanation: | - Laut Marx ist die menschliche Entfremdung in der ökonomischen Entfremdung verwurzelt, wo der Arbeiter der Früchte seiner Arbeit unter dem Kapitalismus beraubt wird, was zu einem Verlust von Kontrolle und Sinn in ihrer Existenz führt. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/en.yml index 8c2b7bf5ac4..1ecb3265d37 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/en.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: Economic alienation resulting from capitalist exploitation. wrong_answers: - Political alienation that prevents citizens from freely expressing themselves. - Religious alienation that masks the reality of social injustices. - - Alienation from American culture. + - Cultural alienation caused by the decline of traditional values. explanation: | According to Marx, human alienation is rooted in economic alienation, where the worker is deprived of the fruits of their labor under capitalism, leading to a loss of control and meaning in their existence. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index eb83a95e909..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la fuente principal de la alienación humana según Marx? -answer: La alienación económica resultante de la explotación capitalista. -wrong_answers: - - Alienación política que impide a los ciudadanos expresarse libremente. - - Alienación religiosa que enmascara la realidad de las injusticias sociales. - - Alienación de la cultura estadounidense. -explanation: | - Según Marx, la alienación humana tiene su raíz en la alienación económica, donde al trabajador se le priva de los frutos de su trabajo bajo el capitalismo, lo que lleva a una pérdida de control y significado en su existencia. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 904b4943f35..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Marx'i järgi inimliku võõrandumise peamine allikas? -answer: Majanduslik võõrandumine, mis tuleneb kapitalistlikust ärakasutamisest. -wrong_answers: - - Poliitiline võõrandumine, mis takistab kodanikel vabalt end väljendamast. - - Religioosne võõrandumine, mis varjab sotsiaalsete ebaõigluste tegelikkust. - - Võõrandumine Ameerika kultuurist. -explanation: | - Marx'i järgi on inimlik võõrandumine juurdunud majanduslikus võõrandumises, kus töötaja on ilma jäetud oma töö viljadest kapitalismi tingimustes, viies kontrolli ja tähenduse kaotuseni oma olemasolus. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5db8e8a39d0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: منبع اصلی بیگانگی انسان از نظر مارکس چیست؟ -answer: از خودبیگانگی اقتصادی ناشی از استثمار سرمایه‌داری. -wrong_answers: - - بیگانگی سیاسی که مانع از بیان آزادانه شهروندان می‌شود. - - از خودبیگانگی مذهبی که واقعیت بی‌عدالتی‌های اجتماعی را پنهان می‌کند. - - بیگانگی از فرهنگ آمریکایی. -explanation: | - بر اساس نظر مارکس، بیگانگی انسانی ریشه در بیگانگی اقتصادی دارد، جایی که کارگر تحت سرمایه‌داری از ثمرات کار خود محروم می‌شود و این امر منجر به از دست دادن کنترل و معنا در وجودشان می‌شود. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c4635f3855e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on ihmisen vieraantumisen ensisijainen lähde Marxin mukaan? -answer: Taloudellinen vieraantuminen, joka johtuu kapitalistisesta hyväksikäytöstä. -wrong_answers: - - Poliittinen vieraantuminen, joka estää kansalaisia ilmaisemasta itseään vapaasti. - - Uskonnollinen vieraantuminen, joka peittää sosiaalisten epäoikeudenmukaisuuksien todellisuuden. - - Vieraantuminen amerikkalaisesta kulttuurista. -explanation: | - Marxin mukaan ihmisen vieraantuminen juontaa juurensa taloudellisesta vieraantumisesta, jossa työntekijä on riistetty työnsä hedelmistä kapitalismin alla, mikä johtaa kontrollin ja merkityksen menetykseen heidän olemassaolossaan. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fr.yml index c2317b4aa14..2f5f7628b7b 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/fr.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: L'aliénation économique qui découle de l'exploitation capitaliste. wrong_answers: - L'aliénation politique qui empêche les citoyens de s'exprimer librement. - L'aliénation religieuse qui masque la réalité des injustices sociales. - - L'aliénation de la culture américaine. + - L'aliénation culturelle causée par le déclin des valeurs traditionnelles. explanation: | Selon Marx, l'aliénation humaine prend racine dans l'aliénation économique, où le travailleur est dépossédé des fruits de son travail sous le capitalisme, ce qui génère une perte de contrôle et de sens dans son existence. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1d40b2860b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: मार्क्स के अनुसार मानव अलगाव का प्राथमिक स्रोत क्या है? -answer: पूंजीवादी शोषण के परिणामस्वरूप आर्थिक अलगाव। -wrong_answers: - - राजनीतिक अलगाव जो नागरिकों को स्वतंत्र रूप से अपनी बात कहने से रोकता है। - - धार्मिक अलगाव जो सामाजिक अन्याय की वास्तविकता को छुपाता है। - - अमेरिकी संस्कृति से अलगाव. -explanation: | - मार्क्स के अनुसार, मानव अलगाव आर्थिक अलगाव में निहित है, जहां पूंजीवाद के तहत श्रमिक को उसके श्रम के फल से वंचित किया जाता है, जिससे उसके अस्तित्व पर नियंत्रण और अर्थ का नुकसान होता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8d510a39aba..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa sumber utama alienasi manusia menurut Marx? -answer: Alienasi ekonomi yang diakibatkan oleh eksploitasi kapitalis. -wrong_answers: - - Alienasi politik yang mencegah warga negara dari berekspresi secara bebas. - - Alienasi agama yang menyembunyikan realitas ketidakadilan sosial. - - Alienasi dari budaya Amerika. -explanation: | - Menurut Marx, alienasi manusia berakar pada alienasi ekonomi, di mana pekerja dirampas dari hasil kerja mereka di bawah kapitalisme, yang mengakibatkan kehilangan kontrol dan makna dalam eksistensi mereka. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 804f46844c8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la principale fonte di alienazione umana secondo Marx? -answer: L'alienazione economica risultante dallo sfruttamento capitalista. -wrong_answers: - - Alienazione politica che impedisce ai cittadini di esprimersi liberamente. - - Alienazione religiosa che maschera la realtà delle ingiustizie sociali. - - Alienazione dalla cultura americana. -explanation: | - Secondo Marx, l'alienazione umana ha radici nell'alienazione economica, dove il lavoratore è privato dei frutti del proprio lavoro sotto il capitalismo, portando a una perdita di controllo e significato nella propria esistenza. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b4820654f90..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: マルクスによると、人間の疎外の主な原因は何ですか？ -answer: 資本主義の搾取による経済的疎外。 -wrong_answers: - - 市民が自由に自己表現することを妨げる政治的疎外。 - - 社会的不正の現実を隠す宗教的疎外。 - - アメリカ文化からの疎外。 -explanation: | - マルクスによると、人間の疎外は経済的疎外に根ざしており、労働者は資本主義の下で自分たちの労働の成果から剥奪され、存在の意味と制御を失うことにつながります。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a61ebf71cee..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 마르크스에 따르면 인간 소외의 주요 원인은 무엇인가요? -answer: 자본주의적 착취로 인한 경제적 소외. -wrong_answers: - - 시민들이 자유롭게 자신을 표현하지 못하게 하는 정치적 소외. - - 사회적 불의의 현실을 가리는 종교적 소외. - - 미국 문화로부터의 소외. -explanation: | - 마르크스에 따르면 인간 소외는 자본주의 하에서 노동의 결실을 박탈당하는 경제적 소외에 뿌리를 두고 있으며, 이로 인해 노동자는 자신의 존재에 대한 통제력과 의미를 상실하게 됩니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 01de5a6fc06..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er den primære kilden til menneskelig fremmedgjøring ifølge Marx? -answer: Økonomisk fremmedgjøring som følge av kapitalistisk utnyttelse. -wrong_answers: - - Politisk fremmedgjøring som hindrer borgere fra å fritt uttrykke seg. - - Religiøs fremmedgjøring som maskerer virkeligheten av sosiale urettferdigheter. - - Fremmedgjøring fra amerikansk kultur. -explanation: | - Ifølge Marx er menneskelig fremmedgjøring rotfestet i økonomisk fremmedgjøring, der arbeideren blir fratatt fruktene av sitt arbeid under kapitalismen, noe som fører til et tap av kontroll og mening i deres eksistens. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0858837e2d2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de belangrijkste bron van menselijke vervreemding volgens Marx? -answer: Economische vervreemding als gevolg van kapitalistische uitbuiting. -wrong_answers: - - Politieke vervreemding waardoor burgers zich niet vrij kunnen uiten. - - Religieuze vervreemding die de realiteit van sociaal onrecht maskeert. - - Vervreemding van de Amerikaanse cultuur. -explanation: | - Volgens Marx is menselijke vervreemding geworteld in economische vervreemding, waarbij de arbeider onder het kapitalisme wordt beroofd van de vruchten van zijn arbeid, wat leidt tot een verlies van controle en betekenis in zijn bestaan. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1c130bb4afa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakie jest główne źródło ludzkiej alienacji według Marksa? -answer: Alienacja ekonomiczna wynikająca z kapitalistycznego wyzysku. -wrong_answers: - - Polityczna alienacja, która uniemożliwia obywatelom swobodne wyrażanie siebie. - - Religijna alienacja, która maskuje rzeczywistość niesprawiedliwości społecznej. - - Alienacja od kultury amerykańskiej. -explanation: | - Według Marksa ludzka alienacja jest zakorzeniona w alienacji ekonomicznej, w której pracownik jest pozbawiony owoców swojej pracy w kapitalizmie, co prowadzi do utraty kontroli i sensu jego istnienia. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ed4e4245654..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a principal fonte de alienação humana segundo Marx? -answer: Alienação econômica resultante da exploração capitalista. -wrong_answers: - - Alienação política que impede os cidadãos de se expressarem livremente. - - Alienação religiosa que mascara a realidade das injustiças sociais. - - Alienação da cultura americana. -explanation: | - De acordo com Marx, a alienação humana tem sua raiz na alienação econômica, onde o trabalhador é privado dos frutos de seu trabalho sob o capitalismo, levando a uma perda de controle e significado em sua existência. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f77d2de55c4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki nyamukuru gituma umuntu yitandukanya n’abandi nk’uko Marx abivuga? -answer: Ukwitandukanya n’abandi mu vy’ubutunzi biva ku gukoreshwa nabi kw’abanyagihugu. -wrong_answers: - - Ukwitandukanya na politike kubuza abanyagihugu guserura ivyiyumviro vyabo mu mwidegemvyo. - - Ukwitandukanya n’idini gupfuka ukuri kw’akarenganyo ko mu kibano. - - Ukwitandukanya n’umuco w’Abanyamerika. -explanation: | - Nk’uko Marx abivuga, ugutandukana kw’abantu gushingiye ku gutandukana kw’ubutunzi, aho umukozi abuzwa ivyamwa vy’ibikorwa vyiwe mu gihe c’ubu kapitalizimu, bikaba bituma atakaza ububasha n’insobanuro mu buzima bwiwe. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e2be8ed9ec0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Каков основной источник человеческой алиенации согласно Марксу? -answer: Экономическая алиенация, возникающая в результате капиталистической эксплуатации. -wrong_answers: - - Политическая алиенация, которая не позволяет гражданам свободно выражать себя. - - Религиозная алиенация, которая скрывает реальность социальных несправедливостей. - - Алиенация от американской культуры. -explanation: | - Согласно Марксу, человеческая алиенация уходит корнями в экономическую алиенацию, где работник лишается плодов своего труда в условиях капитализма, что приводит к потере контроля и смысла в их существовании. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d4ee87c551d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koji je primarni izvor ljudske otuđenosti prema Marksu? -answer: Ekonomska alienacija koja proizlazi iz kapitalističke eksploatacije. -wrong_answers: - - Politička otuđenost koja sprečava građane da se slobodno izražavaju. - - Religijska otuđenost koja prikriva stvarnost društvenih nepravdi. - - Otuđenje od američke kulture. -explanation: | - Prema Marksu, ljudska otuđenost je ukorenjena u ekonomskoj otuđenosti, gde je radnik lišen plodova svog rada pod kapitalizmom, što dovodi do gubitka kontrole i smisla u njihovom postojanju. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 575bed9697d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken är den främsta källan till mänsklig alienation enligt Marx? -answer: Ekonomisk alienation till följd av kapitalistisk exploatering. -wrong_answers: - - Politisk alienation som hindrar medborgarna från att uttrycka sig fritt. - - Religiös alienation som maskerar verkligheten av sociala orättvisor. - - Främlingskap från amerikansk kultur. -explanation: | - Enligt Marx har den mänskliga alienationen sina rötter i den ekonomiska alienationen, där arbetaren berövas frukterna av sitt arbete under kapitalismen, vilket leder till en förlust av kontroll och mening i tillvaron. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1c92991786e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni nini chanzo kikuu cha kutengwa kwa wanadamu kulingana na Marx? -answer: Kutengwa kiuchumi kutokana na unyonyaji wa kibepari. -wrong_answers: - - Utengano wa kisiasa unaozuia raia kujieleza kwa uhuru. - - Utengano wa kidini unaofunika ukweli wa dhuluma za kijamii. - - Kutengwa na tamaduni za Amerika. -explanation: | - Kulingana na Marx, kutengwa kwa wanadamu kunatokana na kutengwa kwa uchumi, ambapo mfanyakazi ananyimwa matunda ya kazi yake chini ya ubepari, na kusababisha kupoteza udhibiti na maana katika uwepo wao. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d7a75731c73..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: แหล่งที่มาหลักของการแปลกแยกของมนุษย์ตามมาร์กซ์คืออะไร? -answer: ความแปลกแยกทางเศรษฐกิจที่เกิดจากการแสวงหาผลประโยชน์แบบทุนนิยม -wrong_answers: - - ความแปลกแยกทางการเมืองที่ขัดขวางไม่ให้พลเมืองแสดงความคิดเห็นอย่างเสรี - - การแปลกแยกทางศาสนาที่ปกปิดความเป็นจริงของความอยุติธรรมทางสังคม - - ความแปลกแยกจากวัฒนธรรมอเมริกัน -explanation: | - ตามที่มาร์กซ์กล่าวไว้ การแปลกแยกของมนุษย์มีรากฐานมาจากการแปลกแยกทางเศรษฐกิจ ซึ่งคนงานถูกพรากจากผลผลิตของแรงงานของตนภายใต้ระบบทุนนิยม นำไปสู่การสูญเสียการควบคุมและความหมายในชีวิตของพวกเขา -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6d6320a9698..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Marx'a göre insanın yabancılaşmasının temel kaynağı nedir? -answer: Kapitalist sömürüden kaynaklanan ekonomik yabancılaşma. -wrong_answers: - - Vatandaşların kendilerini özgürce ifade etmelerini engelleyen siyasi yabancılaşma. - - Sosyal adaletsizliklerin gerçekliğini maskeleyen dini yabancılaşma. - - Amerikan kültürüne yabancılaşma. -explanation: | - Marx'a göre, insanın yabancılaşması ekonomik yabancılaşmadan kaynaklanır; işçi kapitalizm altında emeğinin meyvelerinden mahrum bırakılır, bu da varoluşunda kontrol ve anlam kaybına yol açar. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 47ce7717c99..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Nguồn gốc chính của sự xa lánh con người theo Marx là gì? -answer: Sự xa lánh kinh tế do sự bóc lột của chủ nghĩa tư bản. -wrong_answers: - - Sự xa lánh chính trị ngăn cản công dân tự do biểu đạt bản thân. - - Sự xa lánh tôn giáo che giấu thực tế của các bất công xã hội. - - Sự xa lánh từ văn hóa Mỹ. -explanation: | - Theo Marx, sự xa lánh con người bắt nguồn từ sự xa lánh kinh tế, nơi người lao động bị tước đoạt quả ngọt của lao động dưới chủ nghĩa tư bản, dẫn đến mất kiểm soát và ý nghĩa trong tồn tại của họ. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 17245f5245b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 根据马克思，人类异化的主要来源是什么？ -answer: 资本主义剥削导致的经济异化。 -wrong_answers: - - 阻止公民自由表达自己的政治异化。 - - 掩盖社会不公正现实的宗教异化。 - - 与美国文化的疏离。 -explanation: | - 根据马克思，人类异化根源于经济异化，其中工人在资本主义下被剥夺了他们劳动的果实，导致他们失去了对自己存在的控制和意义。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bfde2f62b2f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/098/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 根據馬克思，人類異化的主要來源是什麼？ -answer: 資本主義剝削所造成的經濟異化。 -wrong_answers: - - 阻止公民自由表達的政治疏離。 - - 掩蓋社會不公現實的宗教疏離。 - - 疏離美國文化。 -explanation: | - 根據馬克思的說法，人類的異化根源於經濟異化，在資本主義下，工人被剝奪了他們的勞動成果，導致他們失去控制權和生存的意義。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1107affae22..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Кое е необходимото условие за истинска еманципация според Маркс? -answer: Осъществяването на икономическа и социална революция, която да премахне капитализма. -wrong_answers: - - Създаване на безпристрастна и неутрална държава. - - Премахване на религията и нейните илюзии. - - Унищожаването на McDonald's. -explanation: | - За Маркс истинската еманципация изисква радикална трансформация на икономическите и социалните структури чрез революция, която да сложи край на капиталистическата експлоатация и да създаде безкласово общество. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f4ac67a6c33..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaká je nezbytná podmínka pro skutečné osvobození podle Marxe? -answer: Uvědomění si ekonomické a sociální revoluce, která zruší kapitalismus. -wrong_answers: - - Zřízení nestranného a neutrálního státu. - - Odstranění náboženství a jeho iluzí. - - Zničení McDonald's. -explanation: | - Pro Marxe vyžaduje skutečné osvobození radikální transformaci ekonomických a sociálních struktur prostřednictvím revoluce, aby se ukončilo kapitalistické vykořisťování a zřídila beztrídní společnost. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 309286cbb71..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die notwendige Bedingung für wahre Emanzipation nach Marx? -answer: Die Verwirklichung einer wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Revolution, die den Kapitalismus abschafft. -wrong_answers: - - Die Einrichtung eines unparteiischen und neutralen Staates. - - Die Beseitigung der Religion und ihrer Illusionen. - - Die Zerstörung von McDonald's. -explanation: | - Für Marx erfordert wahre Emanzipation eine radikale Transformation der wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Strukturen durch Revolution, um die kapitalistische Ausbeutung zu beenden und eine klassenlose Gesellschaft zu etablieren. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/en.yml index d67b0209c79..2e845e2988c 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/en.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: The realization of an economic and social revolution abolishing capitali wrong_answers: - The establishment of an impartial and neutral state. - The elimination of religion and its illusions. - - The destruction of McDonald's. + - The universal adoption of liberal democratic institutions. explanation: | For Marx, true emancipation necessitates a radical transformation of economic and social structures through revolution, thereby ending capitalist exploitation and establishing a classless society. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9b29aedb232..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la condición necesaria para la verdadera emancipación según Marx? -answer: La realización de una revolución económica y social que aboliera el capitalismo. -wrong_answers: - - El establecimiento de un estado imparcial y neutral. - - La eliminación de la religión y sus ilusiones. - - La destrucción de McDonald's. -explanation: | - Para Marx, la verdadera emancipación requiere una transformación radical de las estructuras económicas y sociales a través de la revolución, con el fin de terminar con la explotación capitalista y establecer una sociedad sin clases. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5ea9fd7b30e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on tõelise vabanemise vajalik tingimus Marx'i järgi? -answer: Majandusliku ja sotsiaalse revolutsiooni teostamine, mis kaotab kapitalismi. -wrong_answers: - - Erapooletu ja neutraalse riigi loomine. - - Religiooni ja selle illusioonide kõrvaldamine. - - McDonald'si hävitamine. -explanation: | - Marx'i jaoks nõuab tõeline vabanemine majanduslike ja sotsiaalsete struktuuride radikaalset muutmist revolutsiooni kaudu, et lõpetada kapitalistlik ekspluateerimine ja luua klassideta ühiskond. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 22aec89f1ae..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: شرط لازم برای رهایی واقعی از نظر مارکس چیست؟ -answer: تحقق یک انقلاب اقتصادی و اجتماعی که سرمایه‌داری را لغو می‌کند. -wrong_answers: - - ایجاد یک دولت بی‌طرف و بی‌غرض. - - حذف دین و توهمات آن. - - نابودی مک‌دونالد. -explanation: | - برای مارکس، رهایی واقعی نیازمند یک تحول رادیکال در ساختارهای اقتصادی و اجتماعی از طریق انقلاب است، به‌منظور پایان دادن به استثمار سرمایه‌داری و ایجاد یک جامعه بدون طبقه. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 894085cd135..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on välttämätön ehto todelliselle vapautumiselle Marxin mukaan? -answer: Taloudellisen ja sosiaalisen vallankumouksen toteutuminen, joka poistaa kapitalismin. -wrong_answers: - - Puolueettoman ja neutraalin valtion perustaminen. - - Uskonnon ja sen harhakuvitelmien poistaminen. - - McDonald'sin tuhoaminen. -explanation: | - Marxin mukaan todellinen vapautuminen vaatii taloudellisten ja sosiaalisten rakenteiden radikaalin muutoksen vallankumouksen kautta, jotta kapitalistinen hyväksikäyttö päättyisi ja luokaton yhteiskunta voitaisiin perustaa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fr.yml index 01f6e01fc26..23fd4ac4eda 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/fr.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: La réalisation d'une révolution économique et sociale abolissant le c wrong_answers: - L'instauration d'un État impartial et neutre. - La suppression de la religion et de ses illusions. - - La destruction des McDonald's. + - L'adoption universelle des institutions libérales démocratiques. explanation: | Pour Marx, l'émancipation véritable nécessite une transformation radicale des structures économiques et sociales par la révolution, afin de mettre fin à l'exploitation capitaliste et instaurer une société sans classes. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1d44002cb82..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: मार्क्स के अनुसार सच्ची आज़ादी की ज़रूरी शर्त क्या है? -answer: एक आर्थिक और सामाजिक क्रांति की प्राप्ति जो पूंजीवाद को खत्म कर दे। -wrong_answers: - - एक निष्पक्ष और तटस्थ राज्य की स्थापना। - - धर्म और उसके भ्रमों का खात्मा। - - मैकडॉनल्ड्स का विनाश। -explanation: | - मार्क्स के लिए, असली आज़ादी के लिए क्रांति के ज़रिए आर्थिक और सामाजिक ढाँचे में बुनियादी बदलाव ज़रूरी है, ताकि पूँजीवादी शोषण ख़त्म हो और एक बिना वर्ग वाला समाज बन सके। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index db46f6a5a15..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa syarat yang diperlukan untuk pembebasan sejati menurut Marx? -answer: Realisasi revolusi ekonomi dan sosial yang menghapuskan kapitalisme. -wrong_answers: - - Pembentukan negara yang imparsial dan netral. - - Penghapusan agama dan ilusinya. - - Penghancuran McDonald's. -explanation: | - Bagi Marx, pembebasan sejati memerlukan transformasi radikal struktur ekonomi dan sosial melalui revolusi, untuk mengakhiri eksploitasi kapitalis dan mendirikan masyarakat tanpa kelas. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index eba460e63ca..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la condizione necessaria per la vera emancipazione secondo Marx? -answer: La realizzazione di una rivoluzione economica e sociale che abolisca il capitalismo. -wrong_answers: - - L'istituzione di uno Stato imparziale e neutrale. - - L'eliminazione della religione e delle sue illusioni. - - La distruzione di McDonald's. -explanation: | - Per Marx, la vera emancipazione richiede una trasformazione radicale delle strutture economiche e sociali attraverso la rivoluzione, al fine di porre fine allo sfruttamento capitalista e stabilire una società senza classi. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6389ab55b35..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: マルクスによると、真の解放に必要な条件は何ですか？ -answer: 資本主義を廃止する経済的および社会的革命の実現。 -wrong_answers: - - 公平で中立的な国家の確立。 - - 宗教とその幻想の排除。 - - マクドナルドの破壊。 -explanation: | - マルクスにとって、真の解放は、資本主義的な搾取を終わらせ、階級のない社会を確立するために、経済的および社会的構造を革命を通じて根本的に変革することを要求します。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 846d33f4e71..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 마르크스에 따르면 진정한 해방을 위한 필요 조건은 무엇인가요? -answer: 자본주의를 폐지하는 경제 및 사회 혁명의 실현. -wrong_answers: - - 공평하고 중립적인 국가의 수립. - - 종교와 그 환상을 제거합니다. - - 맥도날드의 파괴. -explanation: | - 마르크스에게 진정한 해방은 혁명을 통해 경제 및 사회 구조를 근본적으로 변화시켜 자본주의적 착취를 종식하고 계급 없는 사회를 구축하는 것이었습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 886feec03ea..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er den nødvendige betingelsen for ekte frigjøring ifølge Marx? -answer: Realiseringen av en økonomisk og sosial revolusjon som avskaffer kapitalismen. -wrong_answers: - - Etableringen av en upartisk og nøytral stat. - - Elimineringen av religion og dens illusjoner. - - Ødeleggelsen av McDonald's. -explanation: | - For Marx krever ekte frigjøring en radikal transformasjon av økonomiske og sosiale strukturer gjennom revolusjon, for å avslutte kapitalistisk utbytting og etablere et klasseløst samfunn. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 23ebef61d23..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is volgens Marx de noodzakelijke voorwaarde voor echte emancipatie? -answer: De realisatie van een economische en sociale revolutie die het kapitalisme afschaft. -wrong_answers: - - De oprichting van een onpartijdige en neutrale staat. - - De eliminatie van religie en haar illusies. - - De vernietiging van McDonald's. -explanation: | - Voor Marx vereist werkelijke emancipatie een radicale transformatie van economische en sociale structuren door middel van revolutie, om zo een einde te maken aan de kapitalistische uitbuiting en een klassenloze maatschappij te vestigen. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 53e7377cb13..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest niezbędny warunek prawdziwej emancypacji według Marksa? -answer: Realizacja rewolucji gospodarczej i społecznej znoszącej kapitalizm. -wrong_answers: - - Ustanowienie bezstronnego i neutralnego państwa. - - Eliminacja religii i jej iluzji. - - Zniszczenie McDonald's. -explanation: | - Dla Marksa prawdziwa emancypacja wymaga radykalnej transformacji struktur gospodarczych i społecznych poprzez rewolucję, aby położyć kres kapitalistycznemu wyzyskowi i ustanowić społeczeństwo bezklasowe. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index ec7cfaadbc6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a condição necessária para a verdadeira emancipação segundo Marx? -answer: A realização de uma revolução econômica e social que abole o capitalismo. -wrong_answers: - - A criação de um estado imparcial e neutro. - - A eliminação da religião e suas ilusões. - - A destruição do McDonald's. -explanation: | - Para Marx, a verdadeira emancipação requer uma transformação radical das estruturas econômicas e sociais por meio de revolução, a fim de acabar com a exploração capitalista e estabelecer uma sociedade sem classes. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4e370d4c8ca..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki gikenewe kugira umuntu yidegemvye vy’ukuri nk’uko Marx abivuga? -answer: Gushika ku mpinduka y’ubutunzi n’imibano ikuraho ubu kapitalizimu. -wrong_answers: - - Gushinga igihugu kitagira aho kigarukira kandi kitagira aho kigarukira. - - Gukuraho idini n’ibinyoma vyaryo. - - Ivyo gusenyuka kw’i McDonald’s. -explanation: | - Ku bwa Marx, ukwidegemvya nyakuri gusaba uguhindura bimwe bikomeye imiterere y’ubutunzi n’imibano biciye mu mpinduka, gutyo hakarangizwa ubusuma bw’abanyagihugu, hagashingwa igihugu kitagira umugwi. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a1b085d0963..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Каково необходимое условие для настоящего освобождения по мнению Маркса? -answer: Осуществление экономической и социальной революции, прекращающей капитализм. -wrong_answers: - - Установление беспристрастного и нейтрального государства. - - Устранение религии и её иллюзий. - - Разрушение McDonald's. -explanation: | - Для Маркса настоящее освобождение требует радикального преобразования экономических и социальных структур через революцию, чтобы положить конец капиталистической эксплуатации и установить общество без классов. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5f88b07de05..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koji je neophodan uslov za istinsku emancipaciju prema Marksu? -answer: Ostvarenje ekonomske i socijalne revolucije koja ukida kapitalizam. -wrong_answers: - - Osnivanje nepristrasne i neutralne države. - - Eliminacija religije i njenih iluzija. - - Uništenje McDonald's-a. -explanation: | - Za Marksa, prava emancipacija zahteva radikalnu transformaciju ekonomskih i društvenih struktura putem revolucije, kako bi se okončala kapitalistička eksploatacija i uspostavilo društvo bez klasa. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 31478d49f05..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är det nödvändiga villkoret för verklig frigörelse enligt Marx? -answer: Förverkligandet av en ekonomisk och social revolution som avskaffar kapitalismen. -wrong_answers: - - Upprättandet av en opartisk och neutral stat. - - Eliminering av religion och dess illusioner. - - Förstörelsen av McDonald's. -explanation: | - För Marx kräver verklig frigörelse en radikal omvandling av ekonomiska och sociala strukturer genom revolution, för att därigenom göra slut på kapitalistisk exploatering och upprätta ett klasslöst samhälle. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d9e26d1a5ff..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni hali gani ya lazima kwa ukombozi wa kweli kulingana na Marx? -answer: Utekelezaji wa mapinduzi ya kiuchumi na kijamii yanayoondoa ubepari. -wrong_answers: - - Kuanzishwa kwa hali isiyo na upendeleo na isiyo na upande. - - Kuondolewa kwa dini na udanganyifu wake. - - Uharibifu wa McDonald's. -explanation: | - Kwa Marx, ukombozi wa kweli unahitaji mageuzi makubwa ya miundo ya kiuchumi na kijamii kupitia mapinduzi, ili kukomesha unyonyaji wa kibepari na kuanzisha jamii isiyo na matabaka. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 19d8346d7ac..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: เงื่อนไขที่จำเป็นสำหรับการปลดปล่อยที่แท้จริงตามมาร์กซ์คืออะไร? -answer: การตระหนักถึงการปฏิวัติทางเศรษฐกิจและสังคมที่ยกเลิกทุนนิยม -wrong_answers: - - การจัดตั้งรัฐที่เป็นกลางและไม่ลำเอียง - - การกำจัดศาสนาและภาพลวงตาของมัน - - การทำลายล้างของแมคโดนัลด์ -explanation: | - สำหรับมาร์กซ์ การปลดปล่อยที่แท้จริงจำเป็นต้องมีการเปลี่ยนแปลงอย่างรุนแรงของโครงสร้างทางเศรษฐกิจและสังคมผ่านการปฏิวัติ ซึ่งจะยุติการแสวงหาประโยชน์ในระบบทุนนิยมและสร้างสังคมที่ไร้ชนชั้น -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a5d74ade731..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Marx'a göre gerçek kurtuluş için gerekli koşul nedir? -answer: Kapitalizmi ortadan kaldıran ekonomik ve sosyal bir devrimin gerçekleştirilmesi. -wrong_answers: - - Tarafsız ve nötr bir devletin kurulması. - - Dinin ve onun yanılsamalarının ortadan kaldırılması. - - McDonald's'ın yıkımı. -explanation: | - Marx'a göre gerçek kurtuluş, ekonomik ve sosyal yapıların devrim yoluyla radikal bir şekilde dönüştürülmesini, böylece kapitalist sömürünün sona erdirilmesini ve sınıfsız bir toplumun kurulmasını gerektirir. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2e36eb13c5b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Điều kiện cần thiết cho sự giải phóng thực sự theo Marx là gì? -answer: Nhận thức về một cuộc cách mạng kinh tế và xã hội để chấm dứt chủ nghĩa tư bản. -wrong_answers: - - Việc thiết lập một nhà nước công bằng và trung lập. - - Việc loại bỏ tôn giáo và những ảo tưởng của nó. - - Việc phá hủy McDonald's. -explanation: | - Đối với Marx, sự giải phóng thực sự đòi hỏi một sự biến đổi triệt để về cấu trúc kinh tế và xã hội thông qua cách mạng, nhằm chấm dứt sự bóc lột của chủ nghĩa tư bản và thiết lập một xã hội không giai cấp. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0a22573b55a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 根据马克思，真正解放的必要条件是什么？ -answer: 实现一场废除资本主义的经济和社会革命。 -wrong_answers: - - 建立一个公正无私的中立国家。 - - 消除宗教及其幻象。 - - 摧毁麦当劳。 -explanation: | - 对于马克思来说，真正的解放需要通过革命彻底改变经济和社会结构，以终结资本主义的剥削并建立一个无阶级的社会。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3089d42d5f9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/099/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 根據馬克思，真正解放的必要條件是什麼？ -answer: 實現廢除資本主義的經濟和社會革命。 -wrong_answers: - - 建立一個公正中立的國家。 - - 消除宗教及其幻想。 - - 麥當勞的毀滅 -explanation: | - 對馬克思而言，真正的解放需要透過革命來徹底改變經 濟和社會結構，以結束資本主義的剝削並建立無階級的社會。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c049f68a13a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Защо австрийците твърдят, че социализмът е невъзможен за постигане? -answer: Те твърдят, че социализмът е икономически неефективен, но морално справедлив. -wrong_answers: - - Социализмът е в противоречие с природата. - - Социализмът е икономически ефективен, но неморален. - - Австрийците критикуват социализма, защото той не позволява иновации и създаване на богатство. -explanation: | - Икономистите от австрийската школа смятат, че социализмът е икономически неефективен поради отсъствието на свободни ценови механизми, необходими за ефективното координиране на икономиката, въпреки че понякога признават моралните му намерения. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c8ab41822e3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Proč tvrdí Rakušané, že socialismus je nemožné dosáhnout? -answer: Tvrdí, že socialismus je ekonomicky neefektivní, ale morálně spravedlivý. -wrong_answers: - - Socialismus je v rozporu s přírodou. - - Socialismus je ekonomicky efektivní, ale nemorální. - - Rakušané kritizují socialismus, protože neumožňuje inovace a tvorbu bohatství. -explanation: | - Ekonomové z Rakouské školy považují socialismus za ekonomicky neefektivní kvůli absenci volných cenových mechanismů, které jsou nezbytné pro efektivní koordinaci ekonomiky, i když někdy uznávají jeho morální záměry. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 01dbb44058a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Warum behaupten Österreicher, dass Sozialismus unerreichbar ist? -answer: Sie behaupten, dass Sozialismus wirtschaftlich ineffizient, aber moralisch gerecht ist. -wrong_answers: - - Sozialismus widerspricht der Natur. - - Sozialismus ist wirtschaftlich effizient, aber unmoralisch. - - Österreicher kritisieren den Sozialismus, weil er Innovation und Wohlstandsschaffung nicht zulässt. -explanation: | - Ökonomen der österreichischen Schule betrachten den Sozialismus als wirtschaftlich ineffizient aufgrund der Abwesenheit freier Preismechanismen, die notwendig sind, um die Wirtschaft effektiv zu koordinieren, auch wenn sie manchmal seine moralischen Absichten anerkennen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/en.yml index 3e89dfc4639..0fb097975ac 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/en.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Why do Austrians claim that socialism is impossible to achieve? -answer: They assert that socialism is economically inefficient but morally just. +answer: Without a free price system, central planners cannot make accurate economic calculations. wrong_answers: - Socialism is contrary to nature. - Socialism is economically efficient but immoral. - - Austrians criticize socialism because it does not allow for innovation and wealth creation. + - Socialism requires too many bureaucrats to function properly. explanation: | - Economists from the Austrian school consider socialism to be economically inefficient due to the absence of free price mechanisms, necessary to effectively coordinate the economy, even though they sometimes acknowledge its moral intentions. + Ludwig von Mises demonstrated that socialism is impossible in practice because, without a free price system provided by the market, central planners cannot make accurate economic calculations, inevitably leading to widespread shortages and misallocation of resources. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e28b6672608..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Por qué los austriacos afirman que el socialismo es imposible de lograr? -answer: Aseguran que el socialismo es económicamente ineficiente pero moralmente justo. -wrong_answers: - - El socialismo es contrario a la naturaleza. - - El socialismo es económicamente eficiente pero inmoral. - - Los austriacos critican al socialismo porque no permite la innovación y la creación de riqueza. -explanation: | - Los economistas de la escuela austriaca consideran que el socialismo es económicamente ineficiente debido a la ausencia de mecanismos de precios libres, necesarios para coordinar efectivamente la economía, aunque a veces reconocen sus intenciones morales. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5c261ca5fd0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Miks väidavad austerlased, et sotsialismi on võimatu saavutada? -answer: Nad väidavad, et sotsialism on majanduslikult ebaefektiivne, kuid moraalselt õigustatud. -wrong_answers: - - Sotsialism on vastuolus loodusega. - - Sotsialism on majanduslikult efektiivne, kuid ebamoraalne. - - Austerlased kritiseerivad sotsialismi, kuna see ei võimalda innovatsiooni ja rikkuse loomist. -explanation: | - Austria koolkonna majandusteadlased peavad sotsialismi majanduslikult ebaefektiivseks vaba hinnamehhanismi puudumise tõttu, mis on vajalik majanduse efektiivseks koordineerimiseks, kuigi nad mõnikord tunnistavad selle moraalseid kavatsusi. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0350e7dd0f7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: چرا اتریشی‌ها ادعا می‌کنند که سوسیالیسم غیرقابل دستیابی است؟ -answer: آن‌ها ادعا می‌کنند که سوسیالیسم از نظر اقتصادی ناکارآمد اما از نظر اخلاقی عادلانه است. -wrong_answers: - - سوسیالیسم برخلاف طبیعت است. - - سوسیالیسم از نظر اقتصادی کارآمد است اما غیراخلاقی. - - اتریشی‌ها از سوسیالیسم انتقاد می‌کنند زیرا اجازه نوآوری و ایجاد ثروت را نمی‌دهد. -explanation: | - اقتصاددانان مکتب اتریشی، سوسیالیسم را به دلیل نبود مکانیسم‌های قیمت آزاد که برای هماهنگی مؤثر اقتصاد ضروری هستند، از نظر اقتصادی ناکارآمد می‌دانند، حتی اگر گاهی به نیت‌های اخلاقی آن اذعان کنند. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 76d433351d1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Miksi itävaltalaiset väittävät, että sosialismi on mahdotonta saavuttaa? -answer: He väittävät, että sosialismi on taloudellisesti tehotonta mutta moraalisesti oikeudenmukaista. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialismi on vastoin luontoa. - - Sosialismi on taloudellisesti tehokasta mutta moraalitonta. - - Itävaltalaiset kritisoivat sosialismia, koska se ei salli innovaatiota ja vaurauden luomista. -explanation: | - Itävaltalaisen koulukunnan taloustieteilijät pitävät sosialismia taloudellisesti tehomattomana vapaan hintamekanismin puutteen vuoksi, joka on tarpeen talouden tehokkaaseen koordinointiin, vaikka he joskus tunnustavatkin sen moraaliset aikomukset. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fr.yml index 1b9e786b45d..0fa8d61e23f 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Pourquoi les Autrichiens affirment-ils que le socialisme est impossible à réaliser ? -answer: Ils affirment que le socialisme est inefficace sur le plan économique mais juste moralement. +answer: Sans un système de prix libre, les planificateurs centraux ne peuvent pas effectuer de calculs économiques précis. wrong_answers: - Le socialisme est contraire à la nature. - Le socialisme est efficace sur le plan économique mais immoral. - - Les Autrichiens critiquent le socialisme car il ne permet pas d'innover et de créer de la richesse. + - Le socialisme nécessite trop de bureaucrates pour fonctionner correctement. explanation: | - Les économistes de l'École autrichienne considèrent le socialisme comme économiquement inefficace en raison de l'absence de mécanismes de prix libres, nécessaires pour coordonner efficacement l'économie, même s'ils reconnaissent parfois ses intentions morales. -reviewed: true + Ludwig von Mises a démontré que le socialisme est impossible en pratique car, sans un système de prix libre fourni par le marché, les planificateurs centraux ne peuvent pas effectuer de calculs économiques précis, ce qui conduit inévitablement à des pénuries généralisées et à une mauvaise allocation des ressources. +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 80f91a55d81..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: ऑस्ट्रियाई लोग क्यों कहते हैं कि समाजवाद हासिल करना असंभव है? -answer: वे कहते हैं कि समाजवाद आर्थिक रूप से अक्षम है लेकिन नैतिक रूप से न्यायसंगत है। -wrong_answers: - - समाजवाद प्रकृति के खिलाफ है। - - समाजवाद आर्थिक रूप से कुशल है लेकिन अनैतिक है। - - ऑस्ट्रियाई लोग समाजवाद की आलोचना करते हैं क्योंकि यह नवाचार और धन निर्माण की अनुमति नहीं देता। -explanation: | - ऑस्ट्रियन स्कूल के अर्थशास्त्री समाजवाद को आर्थिक रूप से अक्षम मानते हैं क्योंकि इसमें मुक्त मूल्य तंत्र का अभाव होता है, जो अर्थव्यवस्था को प्रभावी ढंग से संचालित करने के लिए जरूरी है, हालांकि वे कभी-कभी इसके नैतिक इरादों को स्वीकार करते हैं। \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index dbfe3865f87..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mengapa orang Austria mengklaim bahwa sosialisme tidak mungkin dicapai? -answer: Mereka menyatakan bahwa sosialisme secara ekonomi tidak efisien tetapi secara moral benar. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialisme bertentangan dengan alam. - - Sosialisme secara ekonomi efisien tetapi tidak bermoral. - - Orang Austria mengkritik sosialisme karena tidak memungkinkan inovasi dan penciptaan kekayaan. -explanation: | - Ekonom dari sekolah Austria menganggap sosialisme sebagai sesuatu yang secara ekonomi tidak efisien karena ketiadaan mekanisme harga bebas, yang diperlukan untuk mengkoordinasikan ekonomi secara efektif, meskipun terkadang mereka mengakui niat moralnya. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 871efa9e33f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Perché gli austriaci affermano che il socialismo è impossibile da realizzare? -answer: Affermano che il socialismo è economicamente inefficiente ma moralmente giusto. -wrong_answers: - - Il socialismo è contrario alla natura. - - Il socialismo è economicamente efficiente ma immorale. - - Gli austriaci criticano il socialismo perché non permette innovazione e creazione di ricchezza. -explanation: | - Gli economisti della scuola austriaca considerano il socialismo economicamente inefficiente a causa dell'assenza di meccanismi di prezzo liberi, necessari per coordinare efficacemente l'economia, anche se talvolta riconoscono le sue intenzioni morali. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9f84b1b0cc0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: なぜオーストリア人は社会主義は実現不可能だと主張するのか？ -answer: 彼らは、社会主義が経済的に非効率であるが、道徳的には正しいと断言しています。 -wrong_answers: - - 社会主義は自然に反する。 - - 社会主義は経済的に効率的だが、不道徳である。 - - オーストリア人は、社会主義が革新と富の創出を許さないために批判している。 -explanation: | - オーストリア学派の経済学者は、社会主義を経済的に非効率だと考えています。これは、経済を効果的に調整するために必要な自由価格メカニズムが欠如しているためです。ただし、彼らは時にその道徳的な意図を認めることがあります。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3b971cc37b1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 오스트리아 사람들은 왜 사회주의 실현이 불가능하다고 주장할까요? -answer: 그들은 사회주의가 경제적으로는 비효율적이지만 도덕적으로는 정의롭다고 주장합니다. -wrong_answers: - - 사회주의는 자연에 반하는 것입니다. - - 사회주의는 경제적으로 효율적이지만 비도덕적입니다. - - 오스트리아 사람들은 사회주의가 혁신과 부의 창출을 허용하지 않는다는 이유로 사회주의를 비판합니다. -explanation: | - 오스트리아 학파의 경제학자들은 사회주의의 도덕적 의도는 인정하지만, 경제를 효과적으로 조정하는 데 필요한 자유 가격 메커니즘이 없기 때문에 경제적으로 비효율적이라고 생각합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 167662510b4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hvorfor hevder østerrikere at sosialisme er umulig å oppnå? -answer: De hevder at sosialisme er økonomisk ineffektivt, men moralsk rettferdig. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialisme er i strid med naturen. - - Sosialisme er økonomisk effektivt, men umoralsk. - - Østerrikere kritiserer sosialisme fordi det ikke tillater innovasjon og skaping av velstand. -explanation: | - Økonomer fra den østerrikske skolen anser sosialisme for å være økonomisk ineffektivt på grunn av fraværet av frie prismekanismer, nødvendige for å effektivt koordinere økonomien, selv om de noen ganger anerkjenner dens moralske intensjoner. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 001129a62ce..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Waarom beweren Oostenrijkers dat socialisme onmogelijk te realiseren is? -answer: Ze beweren dat socialisme economisch inefficiënt is, maar moreel rechtvaardig. -wrong_answers: - - Socialisme is in strijd met de natuur. - - Socialisme is economisch efficiënt maar immoreel. - - Oostenrijkers bekritiseren het socialisme omdat het geen ruimte biedt voor innovatie en het creëren van welvaart. -explanation: | - Economen van de Oostenrijkse school beschouwen socialisme als economisch inefficiënt door de afwezigheid van vrije prijsmechanismen die nodig zijn om de economie effectief te coördineren, ook al erkennen ze soms de morele bedoelingen ervan. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c88f7193efa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Dlaczego Austriacy twierdzą, że socjalizm jest niemożliwy do osiągnięcia? -answer: Twierdzą oni, że socjalizm jest ekonomicznie nieefektywny, ale moralnie sprawiedliwy. -wrong_answers: - - Socjalizm jest sprzeczny z naturą. - - Socjalizm jest wydajny ekonomicznie, ale niemoralny. - - Austriacy krytykują socjalizm, ponieważ nie pozwala on na innowacje i tworzenie bogactwa. -explanation: | - Ekonomiści ze szkoły austriackiej uważają, że socjalizm jest ekonomicznie nieefektywny z powodu braku wolnych mechanizmów cenowych, niezbędnych do skutecznej koordynacji gospodarki, nawet jeśli czasami uznają jego moralne intencje. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a9ad40912f9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Por que os austríacos afirmam que o socialismo é impossível de ser alcançado? -answer: Eles afirmam que o socialismo é economicamente ineficiente, mas moralmente justo. -wrong_answers: - - O socialismo é contrário à natureza. - - O socialismo é economicamente eficiente, mas imoral. - - Os austríacos criticam o socialismo porque ele não permite inovação e criação de riqueza. -explanation: | - Economistas da escola Austríaca consideram o socialismo economicamente ineficiente devido à ausência de mecanismos de preços livres, necessários para coordenar efetivamente a economia, mesmo que às vezes reconheçam suas intenções morais. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2e955d6acff..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni kuki Abanyaotrishe bavuga ko ubusosiyalisimu budashoboka? -answer: Bavuga ko ubusosiyalisiti butagira akamaro mu vy’ubutunzi ariko bukaba bubereye mu vy’inyifato runtu. -wrong_answers: - - Ubusosiyalisiti burateye kubiri n’ibiremwa. - - Ubusosiyalisimu burakora neza mu vy’ubutunzi ariko buratera isoni. - - Abanya Otirishiya baranegura ubusosiyalisimu kuko butarekura ubuhinga bushasha no kurema ubutunzi. -explanation: | - Abahinga mu vy’ubutunzi bo mw’ishure ry’i Otirishiya babona ko ubusosiyalisimu butagira akamaro mu vy’ubutunzi kubera ko ata buryo bwo gutanga ibiciro ku buntu, bukenewe kugira ngo ubutunzi buhuzwe neza, naho rimwe na rimwe bemera ko bufise imigambi yo mu vy’inyifato runtu. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c9fd3d8afec..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Почему австрийцы утверждают, что социализм невозможно достичь? -answer: Они утверждают, что социализм экономически неэффективен, но морально справедлив. -wrong_answers: - - Социализм противоречит природе. - - Социализм экономически эффективен, но аморален. - - Австрийцы критикуют социализм, потому что он не позволяет инновациям и созданию богатства. -explanation: | - Экономисты из австрийской школы считают социализм экономически неэффективным из-за отсутствия свободных механизмов ценообразования, необходимых для эффективной координации экономики, хотя иногда они признают его моральные намерения. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4fb0bbd5d87..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Zašto Austrijanci tvrde da je socijalizam nemoguće postići? -answer: Oni tvrde da je socijalizam ekonomski neefikasan, ali moralno pravedan. -wrong_answers: - - Socijalizam je suprotan prirodi. - - Socijalizam je ekonomski efikasan, ali nemoralan. - - Austrijanci kritikuju socijalizam jer ne omogućava inovacije i stvaranje bogatstva. -explanation: | - Ekonomisti iz austrijske škole smatraju da je socijalizam ekonomski neefikasan zbog odsustva slobodnih mehanizama cena, koji su neophodni za efikasnu koordinaciju ekonomije, iako ponekad priznaju njegove moralne namere. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e4b7560d403..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Varför hävdar österrikarna att socialismen är omöjlig att uppnå? -answer: De hävdar att socialismen är ekonomiskt ineffektiv men moraliskt rättvis. -wrong_answers: - - Socialism är naturstridigt. - - Socialism är ekonomiskt effektivt men omoraliskt. - - Österrikare kritiserar socialismen för att den inte tillåter innovation och skapande av välstånd. -explanation: | - Ekonomer från den österrikiska skolan anser att socialismen är ekonomiskt ineffektiv på grund av avsaknaden av fria prismekanismer, som är nödvändiga för att effektivt samordna ekonomin, även om de ibland erkänner dess moraliska avsikter. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9679f8c9e37..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Kwa nini Waaustria wanadai kwamba ujamaa hauwezekani kupatikana? -answer: Wanadai kuwa ujamaa hauna tija kiuchumi bali ni wa haki kimaadili. -wrong_answers: - - Ujamaa ni kinyume na maumbile. - - Ujamaa una ufanisi wa kiuchumi lakini hauna maadili. - - Waaustria wanaukosoa ujamaa kwa sababu hauruhusu uvumbuzi na uzalishaji mali. -explanation: | - Wanauchumi kutoka shule ya Austria wanaona ujamaa kuwa usiofaa kiuchumi kwa sababu ya kukosekana kwa mifumo ya bei ya bure, muhimu ili kuratibu uchumi ipasavyo, ingawa wakati mwingine wanakubali nia yake ya maadili. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d02b6c2b532..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ทำไมชาวออสเตรียถึงอ้างว่าสังคมนิยมไม่สามารถบรรลุได้? -answer: พวกเขายืนยันว่าสังคมนิยมไม่มีประสิทธิภาพทางเศรษฐกิจแต่มีความยุติธรรมทางศีลธรรม -wrong_answers: - - สังคมนิยมขัดต่อธรรมชาติ - - สังคมนิยมมีประสิทธิภาพทางเศรษฐกิจแต่ไร้ศีลธรรม - - ชาวออสเตรียวิจารณ์สังคมนิยมเพราะไม่เปิดโอกาสให้เกิดนวัตกรรมและการสร้างความมั่งคั่ง -explanation: | - นักเศรษฐศาสตร์จากสำนักออสเตรียมองว่าสังคมนิยมไม่มีประสิทธิภาพทางเศรษฐกิจเนื่องจากขาดกลไกราคาที่เสรี ซึ่งจำเป็นต่อการประสานงานทางเศรษฐกิจอย่างมีประสิทธิภาพ แม้ว่าบางครั้งพวกเขาจะยอมรับเจตนาทางศีลธรรมของมันก็ตาม -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a604eeef50c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Avusturyalılar neden sosyalizme ulaşmanın imkansız olduğunu iddia ediyorlar? -answer: Sosyalizmin ekonomik açıdan verimsiz ancak ahlaki açıdan adil olduğunu ileri sürmektedirler. -wrong_answers: - - Sosyalizm doğaya aykırıdır. - - Sosyalizm ekonomik olarak verimlidir ancak ahlaksızdır. - - Avusturyalılar sosyalizmi inovasyona ve zenginlik yaratmaya izin vermediği için eleştirmektedir. -explanation: | - Avusturya ekolünden ekonomistler, bazen ahlaki niyetlerini kabul etseler de, ekonomiyi etkin bir şekilde koordine etmek için gerekli olan serbest fiyat mekanizmalarının yokluğu nedeniyle sosyalizmin ekonomik olarak verimsiz olduğunu düşünmektedirler. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 45023969f34..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Tại sao người Áo lại cho rằng chủ nghĩa xã hội là không thể đạt được? -answer: Họ khẳng định rằng chủ nghĩa xã hội kém hiệu quả về mặt kinh tế nhưng lại công bằng về mặt đạo đức. -wrong_answers: - - Chủ nghĩa xã hội trái với tự nhiên. - - Chủ nghĩa xã hội hiệu quả về mặt kinh tế nhưng bất lương. - - Người Áo chỉ trích chủ nghĩa xã hội vì nó không cho phép đổi mới và tạo ra sự giàu có. -explanation: | - Các nhà kinh tế học thuộc trường phái Áo coi chủ nghĩa xã hội là kém hiệu quả về mặt kinh tế do thiếu cơ chế giá cả tự do, cần thiết để phối hợp hiệu quả nền kinh tế, mặc dù đôi khi họ công nhận ý định đạo đức của nó. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7364e26b5de..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 为什么奥地利人声称社会主义是不可能实现的？ -answer: 他们认为社会主义在经济上是低效的，但在道德上是正当的。 -wrong_answers: - - 社会主义违背自然。 - - 社会主义在经济上是高效的，但不道德。 - - 奥地利人批评社会主义是因为它不允许创新和财富创造。 -explanation: - 奥地利学派的经济学家认为，由于缺乏自由价格机制，社会主义在经济上是低效的，这是有效协调经济所必需的，尽管他们有时承认其道德意图。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aab8324a457..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/104/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 為什麼奧地利人聲稱社會主義是不可能實現的？ -answer: 他們主張社會主義在經濟上是低效的，但在道德上是正義的。 -wrong_answers: - - 社會主義是違反自然的。 - - 社會主義在經濟上是有效率的，但卻是不道德的。 - - 奧地利人批判社會主義，因為它不允許創新和財富的創造。 -explanation: | - 奧地利學派的經濟學家認為，由於缺乏有效協調經濟所需的自由價格機制，社會主義在經濟上是無效率的，儘管他們有時會承認社會主義的道德意圖。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7eb058ed9c7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е основната теза на Хайек в "Пътят към робството"? -answer: Държавният интервенционизъм неизбежно води до робство. -wrong_answers: - - Социализмът и нацизмът са коренно различни идеологии. - - Частната собственост е справедлива, ако е ограничена. - - Ограничението на скоростта по пътя към робството е 80 км/ч. -explanation: | - В "Пътят към крепостничеството" Хайек твърди, че държавната намеса в икономиката постепенно води до загуба на свободата, тъй като централното планиране неизбежно води до ограничаване на личната свобода. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8a07686ae87..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaká je hlavní teze Hayeka v Cesta ke otroctví? -answer: Státní intervencionismus nevyhnutelně vede ke služebnosti. -wrong_answers: - - Socialismus a nacismus jsou zásadně odlišné ideologie. - - Soukromé vlastnictví je spravedlivé, pokud je omezené. - - Rychlostní limit na cestě ke služebnosti je 80 km/h. -explanation: | - V Cestě ke otroctví Hayek argumentuje, že státní zasahování do ekonomiky postupně vede ke ztrátě svobody, jelikož centrální plánování nevyhnutelně vyústí v omezení individuální svobody. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bea8ccd85b7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die Hauptthese von Hayek in Der Weg zur Knechtschaft? -answer: Staatsinterventionismus führt unweigerlich zur Knechtschaft. -wrong_answers: - - Sozialismus und Nationalsozialismus sind grundlegend verschiedene Ideologien. - - Privateigentum ist gerecht, wenn es begrenzt ist. - - Die Geschwindigkeitsbegrenzung auf dem Weg zur Knechtschaft beträgt 80 km/h. -explanation: | - In Der Weg zur Knechtschaft argumentiert Hayek, dass staatliche Eingriffe in die Wirtschaft schrittweise zu einem Verlust der Freiheit führen, da zentrale Planung unweigerlich Einschränkungen der individuellen Freiheit nach sich zieht. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/en.yml index b14acb5c0f7..c3c577c55ee 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/en.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: State interventionism inevitably leads to servitude. wrong_answers: - Socialism and Nazism are fundamentally different ideologies. - Private property is just, if it is limited. - - The speed limit on the road to serfdom is 80 km/h. + - Economic planning can coexist with individual freedom if properly managed. explanation: | In The Road to Serfdom, Hayek argues that state intervention in the economy gradually leads to a loss of freedom, as central planning inevitably results in restrictions on individual liberty. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 89fd2a68518..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la tesis principal de Hayek en Camino de servidumbre? -answer: El intervencionismo estatal lleva inevitablemente a la servidumbre. -wrong_answers: - - El socialismo y el nazismo son ideologías fundamentalmente diferentes. - - La propiedad privada es justa si es limitada. - - El límite de velocidad en el camino a la servidumbre es de 80 km/h. -explanation: | - En Camino de servidumbre, Hayek argumenta que la intervención del estado en la economía lleva gradualmente a una pérdida de libertad, ya que la planificación central inevitablemente resulta en restricciones a la libertad individual. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 690e79a8c8f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Hayeki peamine tees teoses Orjuse tee? -answer: Riiklik sekkumine viib paratamatult orjuseni. -wrong_answers: - - Sotsialism ja natsism on põhimõtteliselt erinevad ideoloogiad. - - Eraomand on õiglane, kui see on piiratud. - - Orjuse teel on kiiruspiirang 80 km/h. -explanation: | - Teoses Orjuse tee väidab Hayek, et riiklik sekkumine majandusse viib järk-järgult vabaduse kaotamiseni, kuna keskne planeerimine toob paratamatult kaasa piirangud individuaalsele vabadusele. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f2d9bddad3f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: تز اصلی هایک در کتاب "راهی به سوی بردگی" چیست؟ -answer: مداخله‌گرایی دولتی به ناچار به بندگی منجر می‌شود. -wrong_answers: - - سوسیالیسم و نازیسم به‌طور اساسی ایدئولوژی‌های متفاوتی هستند. - - مالکیت خصوصی تنها در صورتی عادلانه است که محدود باشد. - - حداکثر سرعت در جادهٔ بندگی ۸۰ کیلومتر در ساعت است. -explanation: | - در کتاب راه بردگی، هایک استدلال می‌کند که مداخله دولت در اقتصاد به تدریج منجر به از دست رفتن آزادی می‌شود، زیرا برنامه‌ریزی مرکزی به‌طور اجتناب‌ناپذیری به محدودیت‌هایی بر آزادی فردی منجر می‌شود. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1407374837..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Hayekin pääteesi teoksessa Orjuuden tiellä? -answer: Valtion interventio johtaa väistämättä orjuuteen. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialismi ja natsismi ovat perustavanlaatuisesti erilaisia ideologioita. - - Yksityisomaisuus on oikeudenmukaista, jos se on rajoitettua. - - Orjuuden tiellä nopeusrajoitus on 80 km/h. -explanation: | - Teoksessa Orjuuden tiellä Hayek väittää, että valtion puuttuminen talouteen johtaa asteittain vapauden menetykseen, sillä keskitetty suunnittelu johtaa väistämättä yksilön vapauden rajoituksiin. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fr.yml index 5f26df37913..2c90aaeb03f 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/fr.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: L'interventionnisme étatique mène inévitablement à la servitude. wrong_answers: - Le socialisme et le nazisme sont des idéologies fondamentalement différentes. - La propriété privée est juste si elle est limitée. - - La route de la servitude est limitée à 80 km à l'heure. + - La planification économique peut coexister avec la liberté individuelle si elle est correctement gérée. explanation: | Dans La Route de la Servitude, Hayek affirme que l'intervention de l'État dans l'économie entraîne progressivement une perte de liberté, car la planification centrale conduit inévitablement à des restrictions sur la liberté individuelle. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f3373f5428d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: द रोड टू सर्फडम में हायेक की मुख्य थीसिस क्या है? -answer: राज्य का हस्तक्षेप अनिवार्यतः दासता की ओर ले जाता है। -wrong_answers: - - समाजवाद और नाज़ीवाद मूलतः भिन्न विचारधाराएँ हैं। - - निजी संपत्ति तभी न्यायसंगत है जब वह सीमित हो। - - सर्फडम की ओर जाने वाली सड़क पर गति सीमा 80 किमी/घंटा है। -explanation: | - द रोड टू सर्फडम में हायेक ने तर्क दिया है कि अर्थव्यवस्था में राज्य का हस्तक्षेप धीरे-धीरे स्वतंत्रता की हानि की ओर ले जाता है, क्योंकि केंद्रीय योजना के परिणामस्वरूप अनिवार्य रूप से व्यक्तिगत स्वतंत्रता पर प्रतिबंध लग जाता है। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b237aaf0ae9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa tesis utama Hayek dalam The Road to Serfdom? -answer: Intervensi negara secara tak terelakkan mengarah pada perbudakan. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialisme dan Nazisme adalah ideologi yang fundamental berbeda. - - Properti pribadi adalah adil jika itu dibatasi. - - Batas kecepatan di jalan menuju perbudakan adalah 80 km/jam. -explanation: | - Dalam The Road to Serfdom, Hayek berargumen bahwa intervensi negara dalam ekonomi secara bertahap mengarah pada kehilangan kebebasan, karena perencanaan sentral secara tak terelakkan menghasilkan pembatasan pada kebebasan individu. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index da5e514a66e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la tesi principale di Hayek in -La strada della servitù-? -answer: L'interventismo statale porta inevitabilmente alla servitù. -wrong_answers: - - Il socialismo e il nazismo sono ideologie fondamentalmente diverse. - - La proprietà privata è giusta se è limitata. - - Il limite di velocità sulla strada della servitù è di 80 km/h. -explanation: | - In "La strada della servitù", Hayek sostiene che l'intervento dello Stato nell'economia porta gradualmente a una perdita di libertà, poiché la pianificazione centrale risulta inevitabilmente in restrizioni alla libertà individuale. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aed43018239..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: ハイエクの『隷属への道』における主要な論旨は何ですか？ -answer: 国家の介入主義は必然的に隷属をもたらす。 -wrong_answers: - - 社会主義とナチズムは根本的に異なるイデオロギーである。 - - 私有財産は、それが制限されている場合にのみ正当である。 - - 隷属への道の速度制限は80km/hである。 -explanation: | - 『隷属への道』において、ハイエクは国家が経済に介入することが徐々に自由の喪失につながり、中央計画が必然的に個人の自由に対する制限をもたらすと論じています。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5b204d9e864..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 농노로 가는 길에서 하이에크의 주요 논지는 무엇인가요? -answer: 국가 개입주의는 필연적으로 종속으로 이어집니다. -wrong_answers: - - 사회주의와 나치즘은 근본적으로 다른 이념입니다. - - 사유 재산은 제한이 있는 경우에만 정당합니다. - - 농노로 가는 도로의 제한 속도는 80km/h입니다. -explanation: | - 하이에크는 <노예로 가는 길>에서 중앙 계획은 필연적으로 개인의 자유를 제한하기 때문에 국가의 경제 개입은 점차 자유의 상실로 이어진다고 주장합니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 838a3592e40..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er hovedtesen til Hayek i Veien til trelldom? -answer: Statlig intervensjonisme fører uunngåelig til trelldom. -wrong_answers: - - Sosialisme og nazisme er fundamentalt forskjellige ideologier. - - Privat eiendom er rettferdig hvis den er begrenset. - - Fartsgrensen på veien til trelldom er 80 km/t. -explanation: | - I Veien til trelldom argumenterer Hayek for at statlig inngripen i økonomien gradvis fører til et tap av frihet, ettersom sentral planlegging uunngåelig resulterer i begrensninger på individuell frihet. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f5b5721f0a4..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de belangrijkste stelling van Hayek in The Road to Serfdom? -answer: Staatsinterventionisme leidt onvermijdelijk tot slavernij. -wrong_answers: - - Socialisme en nazisme zijn fundamenteel verschillende ideologieën. - - Privébezit is rechtvaardig als het beperkt is. - - De maximumsnelheid op de weg naar lijfeigenschap is 80 km/u. -explanation: | - In The Road to Serfdom stelt Hayek dat staatsinterventie in de economie geleidelijk leidt tot een verlies van vrijheid, omdat centrale planning onvermijdelijk leidt tot beperkingen van de individuele vrijheid. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 46fae84b53a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaka jest główna teza Hayeka w "Drodze do poddaństwa"? -answer: Interwencjonizm państwowy nieuchronnie prowadzi do zniewolenia. -wrong_answers: - - Socjalizm i nazizm to zasadniczo różne ideologie. - - Własność prywatna jest sprawiedliwa, jeśli jest ograniczona. - - Ograniczenie prędkości na drodze do poddaństwa wynosi 80 km/h. -explanation: | - W Drodze do poddaństwa Hayek argumentuje, że interwencja państwa w gospodarkę stopniowo prowadzi do utraty wolności, ponieważ centralne planowanie nieuchronnie skutkuje ograniczeniem wolności jednostki. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 32758b8617c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a tese principal de Hayek em O Caminho para a Servidão? -answer: O intervencionismo estatal inevitavelmente leva à servidão. -wrong_answers: - - Socialismo e Nazismo são ideologias fundamentalmente diferentes. - - A propriedade privada é justa se for limitada. - - O limite de velocidade no caminho para a servidão é de 80 km/h. -explanation: | - Em O Caminho para a Servidão, Hayek argumenta que a intervenção estatal na economia gradualmente leva à perda de liberdade, pois o planejamento central inevitavelmente resulta em restrições à liberdade individual. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 975d94508a1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni igiki ciyumviro nyamukuru Hayek avuga mu gitabu ciwe Inzira y’Ubuja? -answer: Ukwivanga mu vyo Leta ikora bituma ata kabuza umuntu aba abaja. -wrong_answers: - - Ubusosiyalisimu n’ubunazi ni ivyiyumviro bitandukanye cane. - - Ivy’umuntu ku giti ciwe ni ubutungane, iyo bifise aho bigarukira. - - Umuvuduko wo guca mu nzira ija mu busuku ni 80 km/h. -explanation: | - Mu gitabu ciwe citwa The Road to Serfdom, Hayek avuga ko iyo Leta yinjiye mu vy’ubutunzi buhorobuhoro bituma umuntu atakaza umwidegemvyo, kuko igenamigambi ry’imbere mu gihugu rituma ata kabuza umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe uhagarara. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1a2d5ee4937..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какова основная теза Хайека в Дороге к рабству? -answer: Государственный интервенционизм неизбежно приводит к рабству. -wrong_answers: - - Социализм и нацизм являются кардинально различными идеологиями. - - Частная собственность справедлива, если она ограничена. - - Ограничение скорости на дороге к рабству составляет 80 км/ч. -explanation: | - В Дороге к рабству Хайек утверждает, что государственное вмешательство в экономику постепенно приводит к потере свободы, поскольку централизованное планирование неизбежно влечет за собой ограничения индивидуальной свободы. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 77fd33b4ec2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koja je glavna teza Hajeka u Putu u ropstvo? -answer: Državni intervencionizam neizbežno vodi ka ropstvu. -wrong_answers: - - Socijalizam i nacizam su fundamentalno različite ideologije. - - Privatna svojina je pravedna ako je ograničena. - - Ograničenje brzine na putu ka kmetstvu je 80 km/h. -explanation: | - U knjizi Put u ropstvo, Hajek tvrdi da državna intervencija u ekonomiji postepeno vodi ka gubitku slobode, jer centralno planiranje neizbežno rezultira ograničenjima individualne slobode. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 134f76426ad..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken är Hayeks huvudtes i The Road to Serfdom? -answer: Statlig interventionism leder oundvikligen till slaveri. -wrong_answers: - - Socialism och nazism är fundamentalt olika ideologier. - - Privat egendom är rättvis, om den är begränsad. - - Hastighetsgränsen på vägen till livegenskap är 80 km/h. -explanation: | - I The Road to Serfdom argumenterar Hayek för att statlig inblandning i ekonomin gradvis leder till en förlust av frihet, eftersom central planering oundvikligen leder till begränsningar av den individuella friheten. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 08321d06fe1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni nadharia gani kuu ya Hayek katika Barabara ya Serfdom? -answer: Uingiliaji kati wa serikali bila shaka husababisha utumwa. -wrong_answers: - - Ujamaa na Unazi kimsingi ni itikadi tofauti. - - Mali ya kibinafsi ni tu ikiwa ni mdogo. - - Kikomo cha kasi kwenye barabara ya serfdom ni 80 km / h. -explanation: | - Katika Barabara ya Serfdom, Hayek anasema kuwa kuingilia kati kwa serikali katika uchumi hatua kwa hatua kunasababisha kupoteza uhuru, kwani upangaji mkuu bila shaka husababisha vikwazo kwa uhuru wa mtu binafsi. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a2ebec747b1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: อะไรคือวิทยานิพนธ์หลักของ Hayek ใน The Road to Serfdom? -answer: การแทรกแซงของรัฐนำไปสู่การเป็นทาสอย่างหลีกเลี่ยงไม่ได้ -wrong_answers: - - สังคมนิยมและลัทธินาซีเป็นอุดมการณ์ที่แตกต่างกันโดยพื้นฐาน - - ทรัพย์สินส่วนบุคคลเป็นธรรม หากมีการจำกัด - - ขีดจำกัดความเร็วบนถนนสู่ความเป็นทาสคือ 80 กม./ชม. -explanation: | - ในหนังสือ The Road to Serfdom, Hayek โต้แย้งว่าการแทรกแซงของรัฐในเศรษฐกิจจะนำไปสู่การสูญเสียเสรีภาพอย่างค่อยเป็นค่อยไป เนื่องจากการวางแผนแบบรวมศูนย์จะส่งผลให้เกิดข้อจำกัดต่อเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคลอย่างหลีกเลี่ยงไม่ได้ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0b5478b7c3b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hayek'in Kölelik Yolu'ndaki temel tezi nedir? -answer: Devlet müdahaleciliği kaçınılmaz olarak köleliğe yol açar. -wrong_answers: - - Sosyalizm ve Nazizm temelde farklı ideolojilerdir. - - Özel mülkiyet sınırlı olduğu sürece adildir. - - Köleliğe giden yolda hız sınırı saatte 80 km'dir. -explanation: | - Hayek, Köleliğe Giden Yol'da devletin ekonomiye müdahalesinin giderek özgürlük kaybına yol açtığını, çünkü merkezi planlamanın kaçınılmaz olarak bireysel özgürlüğün kısıtlanmasına neden olduğunu savunur. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 31393e4fe61..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Luận điểm chính của Hayek trong Con đường dẫn đến nô lệ là gì? -answer: Sự can thiệp của nhà nước không thể tránh khỏi dẫn đến sự nô dịch. -wrong_answers: - - Chủ nghĩa xã hội và Chủ nghĩa Quốc xã là hai ý thức hệ cơ bản khác biệt. - - Tài sản tư nhân là công bằng nếu nó được hạn chế. - - Tốc độ giới hạn trên con đường dẫn đến nô lệ là 80 km/h. -explanation: | - Trong Con đường dẫn đến nô lệ, Hayek lập luận rằng sự can thiệp của nhà nước vào nền kinh tế dần dần dẫn đến mất tự do, vì kế hoạch hóa trung ương không thể tránh khỏi dẫn đến các hạn chế về tự do cá nhân. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4c31268600c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 海耶克在《通往奴役之路》中的主要论点是什么？ -answer: 国家干预主义不可避免地导致奴役。 -wrong_answers: - - 社会主义和纳粹主义是根本不同的意识形态。 - - 如果私有财产受到限制，那么它是公正的。 - - 通往奴役之路的速度限制是80公里/小时。 -explanation: | - 在《通往奴役之路》中，海耶克论证了国家对经济的干预逐渐导致自由的丧失，因为中央计划不可避免地导致对个人自由的限制。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 115d14854bf..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/105/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 哈耶克在《通往奴役之路》中的主要論點是什麼？ -answer: 國家干預主義必然導致奴役。 -wrong_answers: - - 社會主義和納粹主義是根本不同的意識形態。 - - 如果私有財產是有限的，它就是正義的。 - - 通往農奴之路的限速為每小時 80 公里。 -explanation: | - 在《通往奴役之路》中，哈耶克認為國家對經濟的干預會逐漸導致自由的喪失，因為中央計畫必然會造成對個人自由的限制。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 8c8eba0617a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Каква е връзката между социализма и нацизма според Хайек? -answer: Всички останали отговори (те споделят отхвърлянето на индивидуализма, дават приоритет на благосъстоянието на групата и използват принуда). -wrong_answers: - - Двете идеологии са несъвместими. - - Социализмът и нацизмът се противопоставят по икономически въпроси. - - Социализмът и нацизмът нямат никаква връзка. -explanation: | - Хайек твърди, че социализмът и нацизмът имат общи черти, като например отхвърлянето на индивидуализма в полза на колектива и използването на принуда, което ги прави сходни по отношение на авторитарния им ефект. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index fd31ae587e6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Podle Hayeka, jaká je souvislost mezi socialismem a nacismem? -answer: Všechny ostatní odpovědi (sdílejí odmítnutí individualismu, dávají přednost blahu skupiny, používají nátlak). -wrong_answers: - - Tyto dvě ideologie jsou nekompatibilní. - - Socialismus a nacismus se rozcházejí v ekonomických otázkách. - - Socialismus a nacismus nemají žádnou souvislost. -explanation: | - Hayek tvrdil, že socialismus a nacismus sdílejí společné rysy, jako je odmítnutí individualismu ve prospěch kolektivu a používání nátlaku, což je činí podobnými ve svých autoritářských efektech. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a688ed7bc5b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist laut Hayek die Verbindung zwischen Sozialismus und Nationalsozialismus? -answer: Alle anderen Antworten (sie teilen die Ablehnung des Individualismus, priorisieren das Wohl der Gruppe, verwenden Zwang). -wrong_answers: - - Die beiden Ideologien sind unvereinbar. - - Sozialismus und Nationalsozialismus stehen in wirtschaftlichen Fragen entgegen. - - Sozialismus und Nationalsozialismus haben keine Verbindung. -explanation: | - Hayek argumentierte, dass Sozialismus und Nationalsozialismus gemeinsame Merkmale teilen, wie die Ablehnung des Individualismus zugunsten des Kollektivs und die Verwendung von Zwang, was sie in ihren autoritären Auswirkungen ähnlich macht. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/en.yml index 6ca1f3153c0..d1010cb3278 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/en.yml @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ question: According to Hayek, what is the connection between socialism and Nazism? -answer: All of the other answers (they share a rejection of individualism, prioritize the welfare of the group, and use coercion). +answer: They share a rejection of individualism, prioritize the welfare of the group, and use coercion. wrong_answers: - The two ideologies are incompatible. - Socialism and Nazism are opposed on economic issues. diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b4d59648852..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Según Hayek, ¿Cuál es la conexión entre el socialismo y el nazismo? -answer: Todas las demás respuestas (comparten un rechazo al individualismo, priorizan el bienestar del grupo, utilizan la coerción). -wrong_answers: - - Las dos ideologías son incompatibles. - - El socialismo y el nazismo están opuestos en temas económicos. - - El socialismo y el nazismo no tienen conexión. -explanation: | - Hayek argumentó que el socialismo y el nazismo comparten rasgos comunes, como el rechazo al individualismo en favor del colectivo y el uso de la coerción, haciéndolos similares en sus efectos autoritarios. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 44862ad5f93..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Milline on Hayeki sõnul sotsialismi ja natsismi seos? -answer: Kõik teised vastused (nad jagavad individualismi tagasilükkamist, eelistavad grupi heaolu, kasutavad sundi). -wrong_answers: - - Need kaks ideoloogiat on ühildumatud. - - Sotsialism ja natsism on majandusküsimustes vastandlikud. - - Sotsialismil ja natsismil pole mingit seost. -explanation: | - Hayek väitis, et sotsialism ja natsism jagavad ühiseid jooni, nagu individualismi tagasilükkamine kollektiivi kasuks ja sundi kasutamine, muutes need nende autoritaarsete mõjude poolest sarnaseks. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 321bb35e0b2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: طبق نظر هایک، ارتباط بین سوسیالیسم و نازیسم چیست؟ -answer: همه پاسخ‌های دیگر (آن‌ها رد فردگرایی را به اشتراک می‌گذارند، رفاه گروه را در اولویت قرار می‌دهند، از اجبار استفاده می‌کنند). -wrong_answers: - - این دو ایدئولوژی ناسازگار هستند. - - سوسیالیسم و نازیسم در مسائل اقتصادی مخالف یکدیگر هستند. - - سوسیالیسم و نازیسم هیچ ارتباطی ندارند. -explanation: | - هایک استدلال کرد که سوسیالیسم و نازیسم ویژگی‌های مشترکی دارند، مانند رد فردگرایی به نفع جمع‌گرایی و استفاده از اجبار، که آن‌ها را در اثرات استبدادی‌شان مشابه می‌سازد. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index d240ef4abab..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Hayekin mukaan yhteys sosialismin ja natsismin välillä? -answer: Kaikki muut vastaukset (ne jakavat individualismin hylkäämisen, asettavat ryhmän hyvinvoinnin etusijalle, käyttävät pakkoa). -wrong_answers: - - Kaksi ideologiaa ovat yhteensopimattomia. - - Sosialismi ja natsismi ovat vastakkaisia talouskysymyksissä. - - Sosialismilla ja natsismilla ei ole yhteyttä. -explanation: | - Hayek väitti, että sosialismi ja natsismi jakavat yhteisiä piirteitä, kuten individualismin hylkäämisen kollektiivin hyväksi ja pakon käytön, mikä tekee niistä samankaltaisia autoritaarisissa vaikutuksissaan. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fr.yml index df6b0e87a90..d8f29696bb4 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/fr.yml @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ question: Selon Hayek, quel est le lien entre le socialisme et le nazisme ? -answer: Toutes les autres réponses (ils partagent un rejet de l'individualisme, privilégient le bien-être du groupe, utilisent la coercition). +answer: Ils partagent un rejet de l'individualisme, privilégient le bien-être du groupe et utilisent la coercition. wrong_answers: - Les deux idéologies sont incompatibles. - Le socialisme et le nazisme s'opposent sur la question économique. - Le socialisme et le nazisme n'ont aucun lien. explanation: | Hayek soutenait que le socialisme et le nazisme partagent des traits communs, comme le rejet de l'individualisme au profit du collectif et le recours à la coercition, les rendant similaires dans leurs effets autoritaires. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 02bc4a41b23..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: हायक के अनुसार, समाजवाद और नाज़ीवाद के बीच क्या संबंध है? -answer: बाकी सारे जवाब (वे व्यक्तिवाद को खारिज करते हैं, समूह के कल्याण को प्राथमिकता देते हैं, ज़बरदस्ती का इस्तेमाल करते हैं)। -wrong_answers: - - दोनों विचारधाराएँ एक-दूसरे से मेल नहीं खातीं। - - समाजवाद और नाज़ीवाद आर्थिक मुद्दों पर एक-दूसरे के विरोधी हैं। - - समाजवाद और नाज़ीवाद का कोई संबंध नहीं है। -explanation: | - हायक ने कहा कि समाजवाद और नाज़ीवाद में कुछ समानताएं हैं, जैसे कि व्यक्तिवाद को खारिज करके सामूहिकता को महत्व देना और ज़बरदस्ती का इस्तेमाल करना। इस वजह से दोनों ही अधिनायकवादी प्रभाव पैदा करते हैं। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7fd32bc51dc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Menurut Hayek, apa hubungan antara sosialisme dan Nazisme? -answer: Semua jawaban lainnya (mereka berbagi penolakan terhadap individualisme, memprioritaskan kesejahteraan kelompok, menggunakan paksaan). -wrong_answers: - - Kedua ideologi tersebut tidak kompatibel. - - Sosialisme dan Nazisme berseberangan dalam masalah ekonomi. - - Sosialisme dan Nazisme tidak memiliki hubungan. -explanation: | - Hayek berargumen bahwa sosialisme dan Nazisme memiliki ciri-ciri umum, seperti penolakan terhadap individualisme demi kolektif dan penggunaan paksaan, membuat mereka serupa dalam efek otoriter mereka. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c4cf4828b83..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Secondo Hayek, qual è il collegamento tra socialismo e nazismo? -answer: Tutte le altre risposte (condividono il rifiuto dell'individualismo, danno priorità al benessere del gruppo, utilizzano la coercizione). -wrong_answers: - - Le due ideologie sono incompatibili. - - Socialismo e nazismo sono opposti su questioni economiche. - - Socialismo e nazismo non hanno nessun collegamento. -explanation: | - Hayek sosteneva che socialismo e nazismo condividono tratti comuni, come il rifiuto dell'individualismo a favore del collettivo e l'uso della coercizione, rendendoli simili nei loro effetti autoritari. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 4128279126a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ハイエクによると、社会主義とナチズムの間にはどのような関連性があるのか？ -answer: 他のすべての回答（個人主義の拒否、集団の福祉を優先すること、強制の使用を共有する）。 -wrong_answers: - - 二つのイデオロギーは互換性がない。 - - 社会主義とナチズムは経済問題において対立している。 - - 社会主義とナチズムには関連性がない。 -explanation: | - ハイエクは、社会主義とナチズムが個人主義の拒否や集団を優先すること、強制の使用など、共通の特徴を共有していると主張し、それによって彼らがその権威主義的な影響において類似しているとしています。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6c762c1e9dc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 하이에크에 따르면 사회주의와 나치즘의 관계는 무엇일까요? -answer: 다른 모든 답변(개인주의에 대한 거부감, 집단의 복지를 우선시하고 강압을 사용한다는 공통점)이 있습니다. -wrong_answers: - - 이 두 가지 이념은 양립할 수 없습니다. - - 사회주의와 나치즘은 경제 문제에서 대립합니다. - - 사회주의와 나치즘은 아무런 관련이 없습니다. -explanation: | - 하이에크는 사회주의와 나치즘이 집단을 위해 개인주의를 거부하고 강압을 사용하는 등 공통된 특성을 공유하며, 이는 권위주의적 효과에 있어서도 유사하다고 주장했습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a626a6bc659..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ifølge Hayek, hva er forbindelsen mellom sosialisme og nazisme? -answer: Alle de andre svarene (de deler en avvisning av individualisme, prioriterer velferden til gruppen, bruker tvang). -wrong_answers: - - De to ideologiene er uforenlige. - - Sosialisme og nazisme er motstridende på økonomiske spørsmål. - - Sosialisme og nazisme har ingen forbindelse. -explanation: | - Hayek argumenterte for at sosialisme og nazisme deler felles trekk, som avvisning av individualisme til fordel for kollektivet og bruk av tvang, noe som gjør dem lik i deres autoritære effekter. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a7af59ae0f6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is volgens Hayek het verband tussen socialisme en nazisme? -answer: Alle andere antwoorden (ze delen een afwijzing van individualisme, geven prioriteit aan het welzijn van de groep en gebruiken dwang). -wrong_answers: - - De twee ideologieën zijn onverenigbaar. - - Socialisme en nazisme staan tegenover elkaar op economisch gebied. - - Socialisme en nazisme hebben niets met elkaar te maken. -explanation: | - Hayek stelde dat socialisme en nazisme gemeenschappelijke kenmerken hebben, zoals de afwijzing van individualisme ten gunste van het collectief en het gebruik van dwang, waardoor ze vergelijkbaar zijn in hun autoritaire effecten. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b34d14675b0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaki jest według Hayeka związek między socjalizmem a nazizmem? -answer: Wszystkie pozostałe odpowiedzi (podzielają odrzucenie indywidualizmu, priorytetowo traktują dobro grupy, używają przymusu). -wrong_answers: - - Te dwie ideologie są nie do pogodzenia. - - Socjalizm i nazizm są przeciwstawne w kwestiach gospodarczych. - - Socjalizm i nazizm nie mają ze sobą żadnego związku. -explanation: | - Hayek argumentował, że socjalizm i nazizm mają wspólne cechy, takie jak odrzucenie indywidualizmu na rzecz kolektywu i stosowanie przymusu, co czyni je podobnymi w ich autorytarnych skutkach. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index c35186ca19a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Segundo Hayek, qual é a conexão entre socialismo e nazismo? -answer: Todas as outras respostas (eles compartilham a rejeição ao individualismo, priorizam o bem-estar do grupo, usam coerção). -wrong_answers: - - As duas ideologias são incompatíveis. - - Socialismo e nazismo são opostos em questões econômicas. - - Socialismo e nazismo não têm conexão. -explanation: | - Hayek argumentou que o socialismo e o nazismo compartilham traços comuns, como a rejeição ao individualismo em favor do coletivo e o uso de coerção, tornando-os semelhantes em seus efeitos autoritários. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 3165fffdee1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Nk’uko Hayek abivuga, ni isano irihe riri hagati y’ubusosiyalisimu n’ubunazi? -answer: Ibindi bisubizo vyose (bisangiye ukwanka ubwigenge bw’umuntu ku giti ciwe, bishira imbere ineza y’umugwi, bikoresha uguhatira). -wrong_answers: - - Izo ngendo zibiri ntizihuye. - - Ubusosiyalisimu n’ubunazi birarwanywa ku bibazo vy’ubutunzi. - - Ubusosiyalisimu n’ubunazi nta sano bifitaniye. -explanation: | - Hayek yavuze ko ubusosiyalisimu n’ubunazi bihuriyeko, nk’ukwanka ubumwe bw’abantu ku giti cabo kugira ngo bafashe abantu bose, ivyo bikaba bituma bisa mu ngaruka zavyo z’ubutegetsi bw’agahomerabunwa. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2e0f53a03b6..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Согласно Хайеку, в чем заключается связь между социализмом и нацизмом? -answer: Все другие ответы (они разделяют отказ от индивидуализма, приоритет блага группы, использование принуждения). -wrong_answers: - - Две идеологии несовместимы. - - Социализм и нацизм противопоставлены в экономических вопросах. - - Между социализмом и нацизмом нет связи. -explanation: | - Хайек утверждал, что социализм и нацизм разделяют общие черты, такие как отказ от индивидуализма в пользу коллектива и использование принуждения, что делает их похожими в их авторитарных эффектах. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a45615001e1..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Prema Hajeku, koja je veza između socijalizma i nacizma? -answer: Svi ostali odgovori (oni dele odbacivanje individualizma, daju prioritet dobrobiti grupe, koriste prinudu). -wrong_answers: - - Dve ideologije su nekompatibilne. - - Socijalizam i nacizam su suprotstavljeni po ekonomskim pitanjima. - - Socijalizam i nacizam nemaju nikakvu vezu. -explanation: | - Hayek je tvrdio da socijalizam i nacizam dele zajedničke osobine, kao što su odbacivanje individualizma u korist kolektiva i upotreba prinude, što ih čini sličnim u njihovim autoritarnim efektima. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1b709c5f650..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vad är enligt Hayek kopplingen mellan socialism och nazism? -answer: Alla de andra svaren (de förkastar individualism, prioriterar gruppens välfärd och använder tvång). -wrong_answers: - - De två ideologierna är oförenliga. - - Socialism och nazism står mot varandra i ekonomiska frågor. - - Socialism och nazism har inget samband. -explanation: | - Hayek hävdade att socialismen och nazismen har gemensamma drag, såsom förkastandet av individualism till förmån för kollektivet och användningen av tvång, vilket gör att de liknar varandra i sina auktoritära effekter. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 04c47e2bc7b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kulingana na Hayek, kuna uhusiano gani kati ya ujamaa na Unazi? -answer: Majibu mengine yote (wanashiriki kukataa ubinafsi, kuweka kipaumbele kwa ustawi wa kikundi, kutumia kulazimisha). -wrong_answers: - - Itikadi hizo mbili hazipatani. - - Ujamaa na Unazi ni kinyume katika masuala ya kiuchumi. - - Ujamaa na Unazi hazina uhusiano. -explanation: | - Hayek alidai kuwa ujamaa na Unazi hushiriki sifa zinazofanana, kama vile kukataa ubinafsi kwa niaba ya pamoja na matumizi ya kulazimisha, na kuzifanya zifanane katika athari zao za kimamlaka. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e9823f8b5fa..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ตามที่เฮเยคกล่าว ความเชื่อมโยงระหว่างสังคมนิยมและนาซีคืออะไร? -answer: คำตอบอื่น ๆ ทั้งหมด (พวกเขาปฏิเสธความเป็นปัจเจกนิยม, ให้ความสำคัญกับสวัสดิการของกลุ่ม, และใช้การบังคับ) -wrong_answers: - - อุดมการณ์ทั้งสองไม่สามารถเข้ากันได้ - - สังคมนิยมและนาซีมีความขัดแย้งกันในประเด็นทางเศรษฐกิจ - - ลัทธิสังคมนิยมและลัทธินาซีไม่มีความเชื่อมโยงกัน -explanation: | - ฮาเย็คโต้แย้งว่าสังคมนิยมและนาซีมีลักษณะร่วมกัน เช่น การปฏิเสธความเป็นปัจเจกบุคคลเพื่อสนับสนุนส่วนรวมและการใช้การบังคับ ซึ่งทำให้พวกเขามีความคล้ายคลึงกันในผลกระทบแบบเผด็จการ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b48a668ec1e..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Hayek'e göre sosyalizm ve Nazizm arasındaki bağlantı nedir? -answer: Diğer tüm cevaplar (bireyciliği reddederler, grubun refahına öncelik verirler ve zorlama kullanırlar). -wrong_answers: - - Bu iki ideoloji birbiriyle bağdaşmamaktadır. - - Sosyalizm ve Nazizm ekonomik konularda karşıttır. - - Sosyalizm ve Nazizm arasında hiçbir bağlantı yoktur. -explanation: | - Hayek, sosyalizm ve Nazizmin, bireyciliğin kolektif lehine reddedilmesi ve zorlama kullanımı gibi ortak özellikleri paylaştığını ve bunun da onları otoriter etkileri bakımından benzer kıldığını ileri sürmüştür. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7861ebcddfd..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Theo Hayek, mối liên hệ giữa chủ nghĩa xã hội và chủ nghĩa Quốc xã là gì? -answer: Tất cả các câu trả lời khác (họ chia sẻ sự từ chối chủ nghĩa cá nhân, ưu tiên lợi ích của nhóm, sử dụng sức ép). -wrong_answers: - - Hai ý thức hệ không tương thích. - - Chủ nghĩa xã hội và chủ nghĩa Quốc xã đối lập về vấn đề kinh tế. - - Chủ nghĩa xã hội và chủ nghĩa Quốc xã không có mối liên hệ. -explanation: | - Hayek đã lập luận rằng chủ nghĩa xã hội và chủ nghĩa Quốc xã chia sẻ những đặc điểm chung, như sự từ chối chủ nghĩa cá nhân để ưu tiên cho tập thể và việc sử dụng sức ép, làm cho chúng tương tự nhau về hiệu ứng độc tài. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 201c4fdabc8..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 根据哈耶克的观点，社会主义与纳粹主义之间有什么联系？ -answer: 所有其他答案（它们共同拒绝个人主义，优先考虑集体的福利，使用强制手段）。 -wrong_answers: - - 这两种意识形态不兼容。 - - 社会主义和纳粹主义在经济问题上持相反观点。 - - 社会主义和纳粹主义之间没有联系。 -explanation: - 哈耶克认为，社会主义和纳粹主义有共同的特征，比如拒绝个人主义而偏向集体，以及使用强制手段，这使得它们在威权效果上相似。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e1e3ad303d3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/108/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 哈耶克認為，社會主義與納粹主義之間有什麼關係？ -answer: 所有其他答案（他們共同拒絕個人主義、優先考量團體福利、使用強迫手段）。 -wrong_answers: - - 這兩種意識形態是不相容的。 - - 社會主義和納粹主義在經濟問題上是對立的。 - - 社會主義和納粹主義沒有任何關聯。 -explanation: | - 哈耶克認為，社會主義與納粹主義有共同的特質，例如摒棄個人主義而傾向於集體主義，以及使用強迫手段，使得兩者在專制效果上很相似。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/bg.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/bg.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 7215d9afe89..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/bg.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Какво е решението, предложено от Хайек, за да се избегне робството? -answer: Защитавайте частната собственост и спонтанния ред на пазара като защитници срещу тиранията. -wrong_answers: - - Той се застъпва за увеличаване на данъците, за да се помогне на бедните. - - Той призовава за връщане към феодалния тип икономическа система. - - Обучение на обществеността относно правилата за движение по пътищата. -explanation: | - Хайек вярва, че индивидуалната свобода се запазва, като се защитава частната собственост и се позволява на пазара да се саморегулира, като по този начин се предотвратява авторитарният уклон и централизацията на властта. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/cs.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/cs.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f4447bd515d..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/cs.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jaké řešení navrhuje Hayek, aby se vyhnul otroctví? -answer: Obrana soukromého vlastnictví a spontánního řádu trhu jako bašty proti tyranii. -wrong_answers: - - Prosazuje zvýšení daní na pomoc chudým. - - Vyzývá k návratu k feudálnímu typu ekonomického systému. - - Vzdělávat veřejnost o pravidlech silničního provozu. -explanation: | - Hayek věří, že individuální svoboda je zachována ochranou soukromého vlastnictví a umožněním trhu se samoregulovat, čímž se předchází autoritářským skluzům a centralizaci moci. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/de.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/de.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6fb211a49a0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/de.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Was ist die von Hayek vorgeschlagene Lösung, um Knechtschaft zu vermeiden? -answer: Verteidigung des Privateigentums und der spontanen Ordnung des Marktes als Bollwerke gegen Tyrannei. -wrong_answers: - - Er setzt sich für eine Erhöhung der Steuern ein, um den Armen zu helfen. - - Er fordert eine Rückkehr zu einem feudalen Wirtschaftssystem. - - Die Öffentlichkeit über Straßenverkehrsregeln aufklären. -explanation: | - Hayek glaubt, dass die individuelle Freiheit durch den Schutz des Privateigentums und die Selbstregulierung des Marktes bewahrt wird, wodurch autoritäre Drifts und die Zentralisierung der Macht verhindert werden. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/en.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/en.yml index 24647532ab8..ec7feff23d2 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/en.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/en.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: Defend private property and the spontaneous order of the market as bulwa wrong_answers: - He advocates for an increase in taxation to help the poor. - He calls for a return to a feudal-type economic system. - - Educate the public on road rules. + - Establish strong trade unions to counterbalance state power. explanation: | Hayek believes that individual freedom is preserved by protecting private property and allowing the market to self-regulate, thus preventing authoritarian drift and the centralization of power. reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/es.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/es.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 962dbe0c9e2..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/es.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ¿Cuál es la solución propuesta por Hayek para evitar la servidumbre? -answer: Defender la propiedad privada y el orden espontáneo del mercado como baluartes contra la tiranía. -wrong_answers: - - Aboga por un aumento en la tributación para ayudar a los pobres. - - Llama a un retorno a un sistema económico de tipo feudal. - - Educar al público sobre las normas de tráfico. -explanation: | - Hayek cree que la libertad individual se preserva protegiendo la propiedad privada y permitiendo que el mercado se autorregule, evitando así desvíos autoritarios y la centralización del poder. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/et.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/et.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1a217bf3f94..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/et.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Mis on Hayeki pakutud lahendus orjuse vältimiseks? -answer: Kaitsta eraomandit ja turu spontaanset korda kui türannia vastaseid tugisambaid. -wrong_answers: - - Ta pooldab maksustamise suurendamist vaeste aitamiseks. - - Ta kutsub üles naasma feodaalse tüüpi majandussüsteemi juurde. - - Harida avalikkust liikluseeskirjade osas. -explanation: | - Hayek usub, et individuaalne vabadus säilib eraomandi kaitsmise ja turu eneseregulatsiooni lubamise kaudu, hoides seeläbi ära autoritaarse kaldumise ja võimu tsentraliseerimise. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fa.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fa.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 6b849bdcd3c..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fa.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: راه‌حل پیشنهادی هایک برای جلوگیری از بردگی چیست؟ -answer: از مالکیت خصوصی و نظم خودجوش بازار به عنوان سنگرهایی در برابر استبداد دفاع کنید. -wrong_answers: - - او از افزایش مالیات برای کمک به فقرا حمایت می‌کند. - - او خواستار بازگشت به یک سیستم اقتصادی شبیه به فئودالیسم است. - - آموزش قوانین جاده به عموم مردم. -explanation: | - هایک بر این باور است که آزادی فردی با حفاظت از مالکیت خصوصی و اجازه دادن به بازار برای خودتنظیمی حفظ می‌شود، و بدین ترتیب از انحرافات استبدادی و تمرکز قدرت جلوگیری می‌کند. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 2c0d7cfd4c0..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Mikä on Hayekin ehdottama ratkaisu orjuuden välttämiseksi? -answer: Puolustaa yksityisomaisuutta ja markkinoiden spontaania järjestystä tyrannian muureina. -wrong_answers: - - Hän kannattaa verotuksen lisäämistä köyhien auttamiseksi. - - Hän vaatii paluuta feodaalityyppiseen talousjärjestelmään. - - Yleisön kouluttaminen tieliikennesäännöistä. -explanation: | - Hayek uskoo, että yksilön vapaus säilyy suojelemalla yksityisomaisuutta ja sallimalla markkinoiden itse-säätelyn, näin estäen autoritaarisen suuntauksen ja vallan keskittymisen. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fr.yml index 5ca9065a834..f4d95f7a480 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fr.yml +++ b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/fr.yml @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ answer: Défendre la propriété privée et l'ordre spontané du marché comme r wrong_answers: - Il préconise une augmentation de la fiscalité pour aider les pauvres. - Il appelle à un retour à un système économique de type féodal. - - Éduquer le public au code de la route. + - Établir des syndicats puissants pour contrebalancer le pouvoir de l'État. explanation: | Hayek considère que la liberté individuelle est préservée en protégeant la propriété privée et en laissant le marché s'autoréguler, empêchant ainsi les dérives autoritaires et la centralisation du pouvoir. -reviewed: true +reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/hi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/hi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index f1ac5538d1a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/hi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: हायक ने गुलामी से बचने के लिए क्या समाधान सुझाया है? -answer: निजी संपत्ति की रक्षा करो और बाजार के स्वतःस्फूर्त व्यवस्था को तानाशाही के खिलाफ एक मजबूत किले के रूप में स्थापित करो। -wrong_answers: - - वह गरीबों की मदद के लिए टैक्स बढ़ाने की वकालत करता है। - - वह एक जमींदारी-प्रकार की आर्थिक व्यवस्था की वापसी की मांग करता है। - - लोगों को सड़क के नियमों के बारे में जागरूक करें। -explanation: | - हायेक का मानना है कि व्यक्तिगत आज़ादी को निजी संपत्ति की सुरक्षा और बाज़ार को स्वयं नियंत्रित करने देने से बचाया जा सकता है, जिससे सत्तावादी रुझान और सत्ता के केंद्रीकरण को रोका जा सके। -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/id.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/id.yml deleted file mode 100644 index b5c787b88d3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/id.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Apa solusi yang diusulkan oleh Hayek untuk menghindari perbudakan? -answer: Membela hak milik pribadi dan tatanan pasar yang spontan sebagai benteng melawan tirani. -wrong_answers: - - Ia menganjurkan peningkatan pajak untuk membantu orang miskin. - - Ia meminta kembali ke sistem ekonomi tipe feodal. - - Mendidik masyarakat tentang aturan lalu lintas. -explanation: | - Hayek percaya bahwa kebebasan individu dipertahankan dengan melindungi hak milik pribadi dan membiarkan pasar mengatur dirinya sendiri, sehingga mencegah pergeseran otoriter dan sentralisasi kekuasaan. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/it.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/it.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 295e5c16bb9..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/it.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual è la soluzione proposta da Hayek per evitare la servitù? -answer: Difendere la proprietà privata e l'ordine spontaneo del mercato come baluardi contro la tirannia. -wrong_answers: - - Sostiene un aumento delle tasse per aiutare i poveri. - - Chiede un ritorno a un sistema economico di tipo feudale. - - Educare il pubblico sulle regole della strada. -explanation: | - Hayek ritiene che la libertà individuale sia preservata proteggendo la proprietà privata e permettendo al mercato di autoregolarsi, prevenendo così derive autoritarie e la centralizzazione del potere. -reviewed: true diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ja.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ja.yml deleted file mode 100644 index e26c860684a..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ja.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: ハイエクが提案する隷属を避ける解決策は何ですか？ -answer: 私有財産と市場の自発的秩序を、専制への防波堤として守ること。 -wrong_answers: - - 貧困層を助けるために税金を増やすことを提唱しています。 - - 封建的な経済システムへの回帰を呼びかけています。 - - 一般公衆に道路規則について教育すること。 -explanation: | - ハイエクは、個人の自由は私有財産を保護し、市場を自己調整させることによって維持され、それによって権威主義への流れや権力の集中を防ぐと信じています。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ko.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ko.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 1bfd3db6c8b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ko.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 하이에크가 노예를 피하기 위해 제안한 해결책은 무엇인가요? -answer: 폭정에 대항하는 보루로서 사유 재산과 시장의 자발적 질서를 보호하세요. -wrong_answers: - - 그는 빈곤층을 돕기 위해 세금을 인상해야 한다고 주장합니다. - - 그는 봉건적 경제 체제로의 회귀를 요구합니다. - - 대중에게 도로 규칙을 교육하세요. -explanation: | - 하이에크는 개인의 자유는 사유 재산을 보호하고 시장의 자율 규제를 허용함으로써 권위주의적 표류와 권력의 중앙 집중화를 방지함으로써 지켜질 수 있다고 믿었습니다. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nb-NO.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nb-NO.yml deleted file mode 100644 index aa444009e31..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nb-NO.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Hva er løsningen foreslått av Hayek for å unngå trelldom? -answer: Forsvare privat eiendom og det spontane markedets orden som vern mot tyranni. -wrong_answers: - - Han argumenterer for en økning i skattlegging for å hjelpe de fattige. - - Han oppfordrer til en retur til et føydalt økonomisk system. - - Utdanne publikum om trafikkregler. -explanation: | - Hayek mener at individuell frihet bevares ved å beskytte privat eiendom og tillate at markedet selvregulerer, og dermed forhindrer autoritære avvik og sentralisering av makt. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 656d38a2c53..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/nl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Wat is de oplossing die Hayek voorstelt om slavernij te vermijden? -answer: Verdedig privébezit en de spontane orde van de markt als bolwerken tegen tirannie. -wrong_answers: - - Hij pleit voor een belastingverhoging om de armen te helpen. - - Hij roept op tot een terugkeer naar een feodaal economisch systeem. - - Het publiek voorlichten over verkeersregels. -explanation: | - Hayek gelooft dat individuele vrijheid behouden blijft door privébezit te beschermen en de markt toe te staan zichzelf te reguleren, waardoor autoritaire drift en centralisatie van macht wordt voorkomen. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pl.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pl.yml deleted file mode 100644 index a52a2e808dc..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pl.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Jakie rozwiązanie proponuje Hayek, aby uniknąć zniewolenia? -answer: Obrona własności prywatnej i spontanicznego porządku rynkowego jako bastionów przeciwko tyranii. -wrong_answers: - - Opowiada się za zwiększeniem podatków, aby pomóc biednym. - - Wzywa do powrotu do feudalnego systemu gospodarczego. - - Edukacja społeczeństwa w zakresie przepisów drogowych. -explanation: | - Hayek wierzy, że wolność jednostki jest zachowana poprzez ochronę własności prywatnej i umożliwienie rynkowi samoregulacji, zapobiegając w ten sposób autorytarnym dryfom i centralizacji władzy. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pt.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pt.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 9117ee8aaab..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/pt.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Qual é a solução proposta por Hayek para evitar a servidão? -answer: Defender a propriedade privada e a ordem espontânea do mercado como baluartes contra a tirania. -wrong_answers: - - Ele defende um aumento na tributação para ajudar os pobres. - - Ele pede um retorno a um sistema econômico do tipo feudal. - - Educar o público sobre as regras de trânsito. -explanation: | - Hayek acredita que a liberdade individual é preservada protegendo a propriedade privada e permitindo que o mercado se autorregule, evitando assim desvios autoritários e a centralização do poder. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/rn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/rn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bb7773d7290..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/rn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni umuti uwuhe Hayek yashikirije kugira ngo umuntu yirinde kuba abaja? -answer: Gukingira umutungo w’abantu ku giti cabo n’urutonde rw’isoko rwihuta nk’ibihome vyo kurwanya ububisha. -wrong_answers: - - Avuga ko bokwongerera imisoro kugira ngo abakene bafashwe. - - Asaba ko hosubira mu buryo bw’ubutunzi bumeze nk’ubw’abanyagihugu. - - Kwigisha abantu bose amategeko y’inzira. -explanation: | - Hayek wemera ko umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe uzigama mu kurinda umutungo w’abantu ku giti cabo no kureka isoko ryigenzura, gutyo bikaba bibuza ubutegetsi bw’agahomerabunwa no gushiramwo ubutegetsi hamwe. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ru.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ru.yml deleted file mode 100644 index adf8775b100..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/ru.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Какое решение предложил Хайек для избежания рабства? -answer: Защищать частную собственность и спонтанный порядок рынка как оплот против тирании. -wrong_answers: - - Он выступает за увеличение налогообложения для помощи бедным. - - Он призывает к возвращению к феодальной экономической системе. - - Обучать общественность правилам дорожного движения. -explanation: - Хайек считает, что индивидуальная свобода сохраняется за счет защиты частной собственности и позволяя рынку саморегулироваться, тем самым предотвращая авторитарные сдвиги и централизацию власти. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sr-Latn.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sr-Latn.yml deleted file mode 100644 index bed4dfce41f..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sr-Latn.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Koje je rešenje koje je Hayek predložio da se izbegne ropstvo? -answer: Branite privatnu svojinu i spontani poredak tržišta kao bedeme protiv tiranije. -wrong_answers: - - Zalaže se za povećanje poreza kako bi se pomoglo siromašnima. - - Poziva na povratak ekonomskom sistemu tipa feudalizma. - - Edukacija javnosti o pravilima na putu. -explanation: | - Hayek veruje da se individualna sloboda očuva zaštitom privatne svojine i omogućavanjem tržištu da se samoreguliše, čime se sprečavaju autoritarni pomaci i centralizacija moći. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sv.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sv.yml deleted file mode 100644 index cfe2aea8a83..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sv.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Vilken är den lösning som Hayek föreslår för att undvika träldom? -answer: Försvara privat egendom och marknadens spontana ordning som bålverk mot tyranni. -wrong_answers: - - Han förespråkar en skattehöjning för att hjälpa de fattiga. - - Han efterlyser en återgång till ett ekonomiskt system av feodal typ. - - Utbilda allmänheten om trafikregler. -explanation: | - Hayek anser att individens frihet bevaras genom att skydda privat egendom och låta marknaden reglera sig själv, vilket förhindrar auktoritär drift och centralisering av makt. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sw.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sw.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 0f8658785f3..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/sw.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Ni suluhisho gani lililopendekezwa na Hayek ili kuzuia utumwa? -answer: Tetea mali ya kibinafsi na utaratibu wa hiari wa soko kama ngome dhidi ya udhalimu. -wrong_answers: - - Anatetea ongezeko la ushuru ili kuwasaidia maskini. - - Anatoa wito wa kurudi kwa mfumo wa kiuchumi wa aina ya feudal. - - Kuelimisha umma juu ya sheria za barabara. -explanation: | - Hayek anaamini kuwa uhuru wa mtu binafsi unalindwa kwa kulinda mali ya kibinafsi na kuruhusu soko kujisimamia, hivyo basi kuzuia mielekeo ya kimabavu na uwekaji mamlaka kati. -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/th.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/th.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 5ec41cf5302..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/th.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: ทางแก้ที่ Hayek เสนอเพื่อหลีกเลี่ยงการเป็นทาสคืออะไร? -answer: ปกป้องทรัพย์สินส่วนตัวและระเบียบที่เกิดขึ้นเองของตลาดในฐานะป้อมปราการต่อต้านการกดขี่ -wrong_answers: - - เขาสนับสนุนการเพิ่มภาษีเพื่อช่วยเหลือคนจน - - เขาเรียกร้องให้กลับไปสู่ระบบเศรษฐกิจแบบศักดินา - - ให้ความรู้แก่ประชาชนเกี่ยวกับกฎจราจร -explanation: | - ฮาเย็คเชื่อว่าเสรีภาพของปัจเจกบุคคลจะได้รับการรักษาโดยการปกป้องทรัพย์สินส่วนตัวและอนุญาตให้ตลาดควบคุมตัวเอง ซึ่งจะป้องกันการเบี่ยงเบนไปสู่เผด็จการและการรวมศูนย์อำนาจ -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/tr.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/tr.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 098d3a52d7b..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/tr.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: Kölelikten kaçınmak için Hayek tarafından önerilen çözüm nedir? -answer: Tiranlığa karşı siper olarak özel mülkiyeti ve piyasanın kendiliğinden oluşan düzenini savunun. -wrong_answers: - - Yoksullara yardım etmek için vergilerin artırılmasını savunuyor. - - Feodal tipte bir ekonomik sisteme geri dönülmesi çağrısında bulunuyor. - - Halkı yol kuralları konusunda eğitin. -explanation: | - Hayek, bireysel özgürlüğün özel mülkiyetin korunması ve piyasanın kendi kendini düzenlemesine izin verilmesi yoluyla korunacağına, böylece otoriter sürüklenmenin ve gücün merkezileşmesinin önleneceğine inanmaktadır. -reviewed: true \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/vi.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/vi.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 455d51a0937..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/vi.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: Giải pháp mà Hayek đề xuất để tránh nô lệ là gì? -answer: Bảo vệ tài sản riêng và trật tự tự phát của thị trường như là những pháo đài chống lại chế độ độc tài. -wrong_answers: - - Ông ủng hộ việc tăng thuế để giúp đỡ người nghèo. - - Ông kêu gọi quay trở lại một hệ thống kinh tế kiểu phong kiến. - - Giáo dục công chúng về luật lệ giao thông. -explanation: | - Hayek tin rằng tự do cá nhân được bảo vệ bằng cách bảo vệ tài sản riêng và cho phép thị trường tự điều chỉnh, từ đó ngăn chặn sự lệch lạc độc tài và sự tập trung quyền lực. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hans.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hans.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 39094fcb378..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hans.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8 +0,0 @@ -question: 海耶克提出了什么解决方案来避免奴役？ -answer: 保卫私有财产和市场的自发秩序，作为抵御暴政的堡垒。 -wrong_answers: - - 他主张增加税收以帮助穷人。 - - 他呼吁回归到封建式的经济体系。 - - 教育公众了解道路规则。 -explanation: | - 海耶克认为，通过保护私有财产和允许市场自我调节，可以保留个人自由，从而防止权威主义的倾向和权力的集中。 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hant.yml b/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hant.yml deleted file mode 100644 index 23ada6f1fa7..00000000000 --- a/courses/phi101/quizz/109/zh-Hant.yml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -question: 哈耶克提出的避免奴役的解決方案是什麼？ -answer: 捍衛私有財產和市場的自發秩序，作為對抗暴政的堡壘。 -wrong_answers: - - 他主張增加稅收來幫助窮人。 - - 他呼籲恢復封建式的經濟體系。 - - 教育大眾道路規則。 -explanation: | - 哈耶克認為，保護私有財產、讓市場自我調節，就能維護個人自由，從而防止專制傾斜和權力集中。 -reviewed: false \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/courses/phi101/rn.md b/courses/phi101/rn.md index 4cfb0ecfb7c..ad0afc498c2 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/rn.md +++ b/courses/phi101/rn.md @@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ Kuva mu bihe vya kera ukwinjira mu gihe c'uburambe, ubwigenge bwarazamutse uko i :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Intangamarara y'Icigwa Murakaze muri PHI101! @@ -79,11 +80,12 @@ Woba witeguriye gutangura uru rugendo rudasanzwe rwa filozofiya rwo kurondera um :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Kubera iki Twokwiga Amateka y'Umwidegemvyo? Ni kuki iki cigwa citwa: Amateka y’Umwidegemvyo? Kubera ko dukeneye gutahura isano riri hagati y’ivyiyumviro n’ibintu kugira ngo ducire urubanza neza igihe cacu kandi dukore dufise ugutahura. Ni muri kahise dusanga Elements kugira ngo dutahure neza ico umwidegemvyo ari co n’impamvu zituma dutegerezwa kuwukunda. -> Iyo kahise katagimurikira kazoza, impwemu igenda mu mwijima (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Demokarasi muri Amerika_). +> Iyo kahise katagimurikira kazoza, impwemu igenda mu mwijima (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Demokarasi muri Amerika](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/rn/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ Filozofiya ya kabiri iboneka mu banditsi nka Rousseau, Robespierre canke Kant, b ![image](assets/rn/007.webp) -> Rousseau avuga ati: «Uwushobora gushinga igihugu, ategerezwa kwumva ashoboye guhindura, mu mvugo y’ikigereranyo, kamere y’umuntu, guhindura umuntu wese, we ubwiwe, ari ikintu cose gitunganye kandi kiri wenyene, akagira igice c’ikintu kinini kuruta ico uwo muntu aronkamwo, mu buryo bumwe, ubuzima bwiwe n’ukubaho kwiwe.» (_Isezerano ry'imibano_) +> Rousseau avuga ati: «Uwushobora gushinga igihugu, ategerezwa kwumva ashoboye guhindura, mu mvugo y’ikigereranyo, kamere y’umuntu, guhindura umuntu wese, we ubwiwe, ari ikintu cose gitunganye kandi kiri wenyene, akagira igice c’ikintu kinini kuruta ico uwo muntu aronkamwo, mu buryo bumwe, ubuzima bwiwe n’ukubaho kwiwe.» (_[Isezerano ry'imibano](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Uvuye muri iyo nzira, igikorwa c’umushingamateka ni ugutunganya, guhindura canke mbere gukuraho umutungo iyo abonye ko ari ngombwa. Kuri Rousseau, umutungo si ikintu gisanzwe ahubwo ni ikintu gisanzwe, nk’ikibano ubwaco. Robespierre na we ashiraho ingingo ngenderwako y'uko "Itunga ari uburenganzira bw'umwenegihugu wese bwo kwinovora no gukoresha umugabane w'itunga yizewe n'itegeko." Nta burenganzira busanzwe bwo kuronka itunga; hariho gusa umubare udahera w’intunganyo zishoboka n’izishobora gushika. @@ -171,6 +173,7 @@ Uvuye muri iyo nzira, igikorwa c’umushingamateka ni ugutunganya, guhindura can :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Umugani w'Umushingamateka w'Uburokoro Bastiat yavuze ko iyo umuntu yuguruye ibitabu vy’inyigisho, amenya yuko abantu boba bacitse ubusa iyo ububasha butagira ico bukoze: @@ -253,6 +256,7 @@ Imisi mikeyi imbere y’uko apfa i Roma mu 1850, Bastiat yarabwiye umugenzi wiwe :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Amateka Yanditswe n'Abatsinze Birazwi ko abatsinze ari bo bandika amateka. Akenshi umuntu yibanda ku kwigarurira ubutegetsi, ku buzima bw’abarongozi bari ku butegetsi, no ku ntambara zibarwanya n’abashaka gufata ikibanza cabo. @@ -316,6 +320,8 @@ Iyi nyigisho iraboneka kandi mu gitabu gikomeye co mu 1983: _Itegeko n’Impindu :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Uko Abasosiyalisiti Babona Amateka + Ariko rero, hariho ubundi buryo bwo kubona amateka. Yarateye imbere cane kandi imaze igihe kirekire ishigikiwe n’abanyabwenge bo mu Burengero be n’abaserukira igihugu co mu Bumanuko bw’Isi. Ivyo ni vyo abasosiyalisiti n’abamarxiste babona amateka. ![image](assets/rn/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +350,7 @@ Iryo sesangura ryerekana ukutamenya neza agaciro k’inyongera n’ubufatanye n ### Impinduka y'inganda iri mu bibazo -Nkako, isesengura ry’aba Marxiste rigoranya ukuri kw’amateka y’Impinduka y’Inganda. Ludwig von Mises yaratomoye neza ico kibazo mu gitabu ciwe c’ubutunzi [_Ibikorwa vy’umuntu_](raba canecane igice citwa [Isobanuro ry’abantu benshi ry’ivy’inganda . Impinduka](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) hamwe n’uruhererekane rw’inyigisho zasohowe zifise umutwe uvuga ngo: [_Itegeko ry’ubutunzi: Ivyiyumviro vy’uyu musi n’ejo_](http://herve.dequengo.free/DMPEht.Mises/). (Ivyo birabereye gusoma, Ivyiyumviro birwanya ubucapitaliste [hano](aha] (aha] n’igitabu [hano] +Nkako, isesengura ry’aba Marxiste rigoranya ukuri kw’amateka y’Impinduka y’Inganda. Ludwig von Mises yaratomoye neza ico kibazo mu gitabu ciwe c’ubutunzi [_Ibikorwa vy’umuntu_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (raba canecane igice citwa [Isobanuro ry’abantu benshi ry’ivy’inganda . Impinduka](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) hamwe n’uruhererekane rw’inyigisho zasohowe zifise umutwe uvuga ngo: [_Itegeko ry’ubutunzi: Ivyiyumviro vy’uyu musi n’ejo_](http://herve.dequengo.free/DMPEht.Mises/). (Ivyo birabereye gusoma, Ivyiyumviro birwanya ubucapitaliste [hano](aha] (aha] n’igitabu [hano] ![image](assets/rn/014.webp) @@ -414,8 +420,9 @@ Mu gusozera iki gice, ugutera imbere kw’ubutunzi n’umuco kw’Uburaya ntikwa :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Ububasha bwa Leta n'Ububasha bw'Imibano -Mu kigabane ca nyuma c’igitabu _Ivy’Igihugu_ (cahinduwe mu gifaransa ngo _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, n’ibinyamakuru vya Résurgence), Murray Rothbard aratanga iciyumviro c’amateka. Iki gice kigufi cane citwa 'Amateka: Ihiganwa hagati y'ububasha bwa Leta n'ububasha bw'imibano.' Nk’uko Rothbard abivuga, amateka arashobora gutahurwa nk’indyane zidahera hagati y’ingingo ngenderwako zibiri z’ishimikiro: +Mu kigabane ca nyuma c’igitabu _[Ivy’Igihugu](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (cahinduwe mu gifaransa ngo _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, n’ibinyamakuru vya Résurgence), Murray Rothbard aratanga iciyumviro c’amateka. Iki gice kigufi cane citwa 'Amateka: Ihiganwa hagati y'ububasha bwa Leta n'ububasha bw'imibano.' Nk’uko Rothbard abivuga, amateka arashobora gutahurwa nk’indyane zidahera hagati y’ingingo ngenderwako zibiri z’ishimikiro: ![image](assets/rn/017.webp) @@ -472,7 +479,7 @@ Hagati y’ikinjana ca 17 n’ica 19, mu bihugu vyinshi vyo mu Burengero, haraba > Muri iki kinjana, umuryango w’abantu urahanganye, kandi, n’ingoma y’ubukazi ya Leta; Leta ubu ifise ibirwanisho vy’ububasha bwo kurema bw’umuntu, ikaba ifashwe kandi igoramye kubera intumbero zayo. -None igihugu cidegemvya ni iki? Ni igihugu kitagira uwugikoresha. Mu gitabu ciwe c'ubuhinga bwa politike, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard arishura ati: "ikibano aho ata bushobozi bushingiye ku mategeko bwo gutera umuntu canke itunga ry'umuntu uwo ari we wese ku nguvu." Ni co gituma, nk’uko abivuga, filozofiya ya politike, itegerezwa gusobanura ingingo ngenderwako z’ikibano c’ubutungane, igarukira ku kibazo kimwe gusa: «Ni nde afise iki mu buryo bubereye?» +None igihugu cidegemvya ni iki? Ni igihugu kitagira uwugikoresha. Mu gitabu ciwe c'ubuhinga bwa politike, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard arishura ati: "ikibano aho ata bushobozi bushingiye ku mategeko bwo gutera umuntu canke itunga ry'umuntu uwo ari we wese ku nguvu." Ni co gituma, nk’uko abivuga, filozofiya ya politike, itegerezwa gusobanura ingingo ngenderwako z’ikibano c’ubutungane, igarukira ku kibazo kimwe gusa: «Ni nde afise iki mu buryo bubereye?» ![image](assets/rn/019.webp) @@ -500,6 +507,7 @@ Kandi yongerako ati: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Iragi rya Demokarasi y'i Atene Ivyo demokarasi y’i Atene yaciyemwo vyasize ikimenyetso kiramvye muri kahise k’ivyiyumviro vya politike kandi birabandanya gutuma habaho ivyiyumviro vya demokarasi n’uruhara rw’abanyagihugu mw’isi y’ubu. @@ -640,6 +648,7 @@ Uburyo bwonyene dufise bwo kwegera ukuri ni ukunegura no kuganira. Mu Bugiriki b :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Ubwami bw'Amoko Menshi Ubwami bw’Uburoma bwari igihugu kinini cane, gifise abantu benshi. Igihe cari ku rwego rwo hejuru, nko mu mwaka w’117 inyuma ya Kristu, cari igihugu kinini cane c’amoko menshi n’indimi nyinshi: @@ -794,6 +803,7 @@ Mu kwemeza yuko itegeko ridashobora kugabanywa ngo ribe gusa amategeko ashirwaho :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Ukugabanuka n'Ugusenyuka Ni kuki Roma yacitse intege maze amaherezo ikagwa? Benshi barakunda kwiyumvira yuko Ubwami bw’Uburoma bwasenyutse bukwi na bukwi, kubera ingaruka z’ibitero vy’abanyamahanga. Ariko rero, imvo z’ugusenyuka kw’Ubwami bw’Uburoma zizoboneka imbere cane, mu butegetsi bw’abami n’ubutegetsi bw’ubutunzi n’amahera. @@ -906,6 +916,7 @@ Kandi yongerako ati: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Imizi ya Gikirisu y'Umwidegemvyo w'Umuntu ku Giti Ciwe Iciyumviro ca gikirisu c'umwidegemvyo carateye imbere mu vy'idini ryo mu kinjana ca mbere, kuva kuri Augustin mweranda mu kinjana ca 4 gushika kuri Thomas d'Aquin mweranda mu kinjana ca 13. Ico ciyumviro ni ikihe? @@ -983,6 +994,7 @@ Nk’uko Tomasi mweranda abivuga: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Ubwigenge bw'Ubwenge Mu kinjana ca mbere, ubwenge n’ukwizera vyari bihiganwa kugira ngo umuntu aronke ukuri. Thomas d’Aquin akurikiye Abélard na Albert Mukuru, mu kinjana ca 13, yahisemwo kurwanira ubwigenge bw’ubwenge mu bijanye n’ukwizera. @@ -1044,6 +1056,7 @@ Kuva ico gihe, ugushira mu ngiro kw’idini kwobaye gutsinda ata gukeka ugushira :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Urutonde rw'Ivy'Idini n'Ivya Politike Mu kinjana ca mbere, Ekleziya n’ubutegetsi bwa gikirisu bwarazwe akarorero ka politike kavuye mu Bwami bw’Uburoma, kazwi ko ari urutonde rw’ivy’idini n’ivya politike —urutonde aho ububasha bubonwa ko ari ubweranda, bisobanura ko umurongozi wa politike na we nyene ari umurongozi w’idini. @@ -1102,6 +1115,7 @@ Igerageza rya tewokarasi rya Ekleziya na ryo nyene rirahushanye n'inyigisho y'"u :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Umuntu Yaremwe mw'Ishusho y'Imana Iciyumviro ca kera cashira umuntu munsi y’isi y’Imana, ni ukuvuga isi n’ikirere bitunganye yari igice gusa cavyo. Ku rundi ruhande, ubumana bumwe buremeza ko umuntu afise agaciro katagira uko kangana kuruta kamere, ku rugero umuntu yaremwe mw’ishusho y’Imana. Ico ciyumviro gihambaye cane ni co gituma habaho ihinduka ry’ukuri ry’inyifato runtu. Bibiliya yemeza agaciro nyeranda kandi katagira uko kangana k’umuntu wese. @@ -1158,6 +1172,7 @@ Iciyumviro c’ubumuntu kiratera imbere. Mu vy’ukuri vyaciye vyiyumvirwa ko ha :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Ubukirisu n'Ubutunzi Bwigenga Twarabonye ko ubukirisu butegeka abantu inshingano yo mu vy’inyifato runtu yo gukora kugira ngo isi itere imbere. Imana ishaka ko umuntu ahimbarwa, ariko ntishaka gushika ku vyiza vyiwe mu kibanza cayo. Ni umukristo rero akwiye kurwanya ikibi co mu vy’inyifato runtu, gukunda mugenziwe, gufasha abashikiwe n’ivyago, muri make, gukorera isi irushiriza kugira ubutungane kandi y’abantu. Mbega ubu kapitalizimu, ni ukuvuga ubutunzi bwigenga bushingiye ku mutungo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe n’umwidegemvyo wo gukora amasezerano, bwoba buhuye n’igikorwa ca gikirisu? @@ -1249,6 +1264,7 @@ Vyongeye, iyo amafaranga abiri atandukanye yungukiye ku mafaranga yemewe n’ama :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Intambara z'Idini n'Igihe c'Umuco Kuva mu gihe c’Ivugurura, Uburaya bwari buzosamburwa n’intambara z’idini. Ukwihangana rero kwacitse imwe mu ntambara zikomeye z’Igihe c’Umuco. @@ -1307,7 +1323,7 @@ Mu _Ikete rya cumi_, "Ku vyerekeye ubudandaji", Voltaire adondora ivyiyumviro vy ### Ukuri gusaba umwidegemvyo -Yamara rero Ubufaransa ntibwari bubuze ubwenge bukomeye. Ntibizwi cane ariko Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, yari umunyavyiyumviro w’imbere imbere y’uko aba umugenzuzi mukuru w’ivy’amahera ku ngoma ya Ludoviko XVI. Yari umwanditsi w’igitabu c’ubuhinga kivuga ku bukungu bwa politike, _Ivyiyumviro ku guhingura no gusangira ubutunzi_ (1766), kikaba cabanjirije igitabu ca Adamu Smith citwa _Ubutunzi bw’amahanga_ (1776). +Yamara rero Ubufaransa ntibwari bubuze ubwenge bukomeye. Ntibizwi cane ariko Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, yari umunyavyiyumviro w’imbere imbere y’uko aba umugenzuzi mukuru w’ivy’amahera ku ngoma ya Ludoviko XVI. Yari umwanditsi w’igitabu c’ubuhinga kivuga ku bukungu bwa politike, _Ivyiyumviro ku guhingura no gusangira ubutunzi_ (1766), kikaba cabanjirije igitabu ca Adamu Smith citwa _[Ubutunzi bw’amahanga](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776). ![image](assets/rn/052.webp) @@ -1336,6 +1352,8 @@ Mu yandi majambo, kwihangana ntibisigura kuba umwansi w’idini. Bisigura kwiyum :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Inkomoko y'Ukwidegemvya mu Vy'Ubutunzi + Ukwidegemvya mu vy’ubutunzi akenshi gufatanya n’umugenzo w’Abongereza, ukomoka kuri Adamu Smith. Bitandukanye n'"uburenganzira bwa politike", buvugwa ko bwakomotse mu gihe c'Umuco w'Igihugu, cane cane mu Bufaransa. Ivyo vyiyumviro ntivyiza. @@ -1433,6 +1451,7 @@ Muri make, iyo umuntu wese ashobora gukurikirana inyungu yiwe bwite mu mwidegemv :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Ibintu Bitatu Vyahinduye Amateka 1776 ni umwaka akenshi utaboneka mu bitabu vy’amateka. Ariko rero, mu bihugu bitatu — Ubufaransa, Ekose na Amerika y’Uburaruko — ibintu bitari bike bizosiga ikimenyetso kidashobora gukurwaho muri kahise k’umwidegemvyo. @@ -1493,7 +1512,7 @@ Ni igitabu kandi kivuga ku buhinga bwa filozofiya kuko kigaragaza ingene Exchang ### Itangazo ry'umwidegemvyo muri Amerika -Mu mwaka w’1776, umwongereza yitwa Thomas Paine yarasohoye agatabu k’ubukazi muri Amerika, anegura ubwami bw’Abongereza, avugira ubwigenge bw’abakoloni b’Abanyamerika, afise umutwe uvuga ngo _Common Sense_. +Mu mwaka w’1776, umwongereza yitwa Thomas Paine yarasohoye agatabu k’ubukazi muri Amerika, anegura ubwami bw’Abongereza, avugira ubwigenge bw’abakoloni b’Abanyamerika, afise umutwe uvuga ngo _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/rn/059.webp) @@ -1581,6 +1600,7 @@ Iciyumviro c’urutonde rw’ibintu vyihuta cacitse iciyumviro nyamukuru mu giko :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Ugukuraho Uruhare rw'Idini n'Imibano ya None Igishasha gikomeye c’iki gihe ca none mu mateka y’Uburengero ni uguseruka kw’ikibano citunganije hanze y’ukwisunga idini. Ivyo ntibisigura ukuzimangana kw’imyizere y’idini canke urupfu rw’Imana. Ariko Imana ica iba ikintu c’umuntu ku giti ciwe, ntikivanga n’ivya politike. Nta kuzimangana kw’idini ahubwo ni ugukuraho uruhara rwaryo rwo kuyobora. Bica bihinduka urutonde rw’ivyo umuntu wese yemera. @@ -1706,7 +1726,7 @@ Muri Amerika, nta dirigisme y’ubutunzi yariho, canke n’ugusenyuka kw’amahe Abafaransa bari kumwe na Rousseau na Robespierre, bararondeye kwemera ko Ihanga canke ubushake bwa rusangi bufise ububasha butagira aho bugarukira kandi ko ibikorwa vyose vyari bibereye. Kuva ku kuba abantu batwara, vyaciye bishika ku ciyumviro c’uko bafise uburenganzira bwose. Biragaragara ko hariho ukuvuguruzanya hagati y’ingingo ngenderwako zikomeye z’Impinduka n’uburyo bwakoreshejwe kugira ngo zitsinde. -Ivyo ni vyo, ikindi, bisobanura amajambo ya Friedrich Hayek mu gitabu ciwe _Itegeko Nshinga ry’Umwidegemvyo_: +Ivyo ni vyo, ikindi, bisobanura amajambo ya Friedrich Hayek mu gitabu ciwe _[Itegeko Nshinga ry’Umwidegemvyo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Ikintu nyamukuru catumye utwigoro tw’Impinduka two guteza imbere umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe tugira ubusa, ni uko twatumye abantu biyumvira ko, mu gihe ububasha bwose bwari bwashikirijwe abantu, uburyo bwose bwo kwirinda gukoresha nabi ubwo bubasha bwacitse ubusa. @@ -1724,6 +1744,7 @@ Ivyo ni vyo, ikindi, bisobanura amajambo ya Friedrich Hayek mu gitabu ciwe _Iteg :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Umwidegemvyo wa Kera n'uwa None Nk’uko Benjamin Constant abivuga, umwidegemvyo mu mibano ya none ntushobora gutahurwa mu buryo bw’imico kama ya kera, nk’ukugira uruhara ata guca ku ruhande mu bikorwa vy’igisagara. @@ -1737,7 +1758,7 @@ Nk’uko Benjamin Constant abivuga, umwidegemvyo mu mibano ya none ntushobora gu Mu bihe vya kera, abantu bari bafise ubusegaba mu bikorwa vya bose mugabo bakaba abaja mu migenderanire yabo yose y’ibanga. Ikoreshwa ry’uburenganzira bwa politike ryari rihevye ukwitanga kw’umwidegemvyo w’umuntu ku giti ciwe: uburenganzira bwo gukoresha ata guca ku ruhande imice itandukanye y’ubusegaba, guhanahana ivyiyumviro mu kibanza ca bose, gutora amategeko, gutanga imanza, no gusuzuma no gucira urubanza abacamanza. Ni umwidegemvyo wa politike n’uw’abantu bose: -> Umwidegemvyo w’Aba kera wari ugizwe n’ukugira uruhara n’umwete kandi ubudasiba mu butegetsi rusangi. Ku rundi ruhande, umwidegemvyo wacu utegerezwa kuba ugizwe n’ukwinovora amahoro mu kwigenga kw’umuntu ku giti ciwe; birakurikira ko dutegerezwa kwifatanya cane n’ukwikukira kwacu kuruta aba kera. (_Ku mwidegemvyo w’aba kera ugereranijwe n’uw’aba none_ (1819)) +> Umwidegemvyo w’Aba kera wari ugizwe n’ukugira uruhara n’umwete kandi ubudasiba mu butegetsi rusangi. Ku rundi ruhande, umwidegemvyo wacu utegerezwa kuba ugizwe n’ukwinovora amahoro mu kwigenga kw’umuntu ku giti ciwe; birakurikira ko dutegerezwa kwifatanya cane n’ukwikukira kwacu kuruta aba kera. (_[Ku mwidegemvyo w’aba kera ugereranijwe n’uw’aba none](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/rn/071.webp) @@ -1748,7 +1769,7 @@ Umwidegemvyo wo muri iki gihe ushiramwo umwidegemvyo w’abanyagihugu, ukaba uri Iyi nsobanuro y'umwidegemvyo iboneka muri John Stuart Mill: -> Umwidegemvyo umwe rudende ukwiriye iryo zina ni uwo gukurikirana ivyiza vyacu mu nzira yacu, igihe cose tutagerageza kwima abandi ivyabo canke ngo tubabuze utwigoro twabo two kubironka. (...) Umuntu aronka vyinshi mu kureka umuntu wese akabaho uko abona ko bikwiye kuruta kumuhatira kubaho uko abandi babona ko ari vyiza. (_Ku mwidegemvyo_, 1859) +> Umwidegemvyo umwe rudende ukwiriye iryo zina ni uwo gukurikirana ivyiza vyacu mu nzira yacu, igihe cose tutagerageza kwima abandi ivyabo canke ngo tubabuze utwigoro twabo two kubironka. (...) Umuntu aronka vyinshi mu kureka umuntu wese akabaho uko abona ko bikwiye kuruta kumuhatira kubaho uko abandi babona ko ari vyiza. (_[Ku mwidegemvyo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/rn/072.webp) @@ -1798,6 +1819,7 @@ Mu yandi majambo, mu kibano cidegemvya, birakenewe ko hashirwaho urubibi rukomey :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville na Demokarasi y'Umuntu ku Giti Ciwe Alexis de Tocqueville yari umuntu yihweza cane demokarasi kandi yari umuntu anegura cane demokarasi y’umuntu ku giti ciwe. @@ -1909,6 +1931,7 @@ Raba umubumbe w’isi. Ni abahe bantu bahimbawe kuruta abandi bose, bafise inyif :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Ukunegura kw'Ikinjana ca 19 Mu kinjana ca 19 ni ho havutse ukunegura ubu kapitalizimu, cane cane ukunegura kw’aba Marxiste. @@ -1955,6 +1978,7 @@ Impinduka ya politike rero ni ukwihenda, nk’uko abivuga, igihe cose itajana n :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Inyishu y'Ishure ryo muri Otirishiya Ishure ry’ubutunzi ryo muri Otirishiya, ryashinzwe na Carl Menger mu mpera z’ikinjana ca 19, ryarwanya ivyiyumviro vya Karl Marx kuva mu ntango. @@ -2038,7 +2062,7 @@ Abamarxiste bemera ko ubusosiyalisimu, uburyo bw’ubutunzi aho uburyo bwo guhin ![image](assets/rn/085.webp) -Kera mu mwaka w’1922, mu gitabu ciwe _Socialisme,_ Ludwig von Mises yerekanye ko ubusosiyalisimu bwotuma haba ubukene bwinshi, kuko abategura imigambi yo hagati batazoshobora gukora imibare y’ubutunzi itagiramwo uburyarya ata nzira y’ibiciro itangwa n’isoko. +Kera mu mwaka w’1922, mu gitabu ciwe _[Socialisme](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises yerekanye ko ubusosiyalisimu bwotuma haba ubukene bwinshi, kuko abategura imigambi yo hagati batazoshobora gukora imibare y’ubutunzi itagiramwo uburyarya ata nzira y’ibiciro itangwa n’isoko. ## Inzira ija mu Buja @@ -2048,8 +2072,9 @@ Kera mu mwaka w’1922, mu gitabu ciwe _Socialisme,_ Ludwig von Mises yerekanye :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### Imburi ya Hayek yo Kurwanya Ubumwe bw'Abantu -Hayek yateye ubwoba n’ugutera imbere kw’ubutegetsi bwo kwivanga mu bukungu bw’ibihugu vya demokarasi vyo mu Burengero, yanditse igitabu _Inzira y’ubuja_ nk’igitabu ca filozofiya co kunegura ubumwe bw’abantu bose, bwaba buva iburyo canke ibubamfu. Ico gitabu casohowe mu ma miliyoni menshi, kubera ikinyamakuru _Reader’s Digest_, carafashije cane Hayek kumenyekana muri Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika. +Hayek yateye ubwoba n’ugutera imbere kw’ubutegetsi bwo kwivanga mu bukungu bw’ibihugu vya demokarasi vyo mu Burengero, yanditse igitabu _[Inzira y’ubuja](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ nk’igitabu ca filozofiya co kunegura ubumwe bw’abantu bose, bwaba buva iburyo canke ibubamfu. Ico gitabu casohowe mu ma miliyoni menshi, kubera ikinyamakuru _Reader’s Digest_, carafashije cane Hayek kumenyekana muri Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika. ![image](assets/rn/086.webp) @@ -2111,6 +2136,7 @@ Mu gusozera, Hayek asaba abo mu gihe ciwe gutera umugongo "ubusazi" n'"ubujuju b :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Impinduka ya Keynes Ubu kapitalizimu akenshi buregwa ko ari bwo butera itegeko rigira riti: "dutegerezwa kwama dukora vyinshi," canke ry'itegeko rigira riti: "gufungura ni vyiza ku gukura." Ariko ivyo vyiyumviro ntibiva ku bu kapitalizimu bwa kera ahubwo biva ku bu Keynes, bwari buganje mu vy’ubutunzi no mu rwego rwa politike kuva mu myaka ya 1930. @@ -2121,7 +2147,7 @@ Ubu kapitalizimu akenshi buregwa ko ari bwo butera itegeko rigira riti: "duteger ### Isesengura ry'Ikibazo co mu 1929 -Igitabo ca John Maynard Keynes, _Iciyumviro rusangi c’akazi, inyungu n’amahera_, casohowe mu mwaka w’1936, carakuye vyose vyari mu nzira yaco. Mu kwibaza imvo z’Ikigoyi Kinini n’uburyo bwo kugikuramwo, adondora akarorero gashasha k’ubutunzi, ko guhindura amayaruka y’abahinga mu vy’ubutunzi n’abanyapolitike. +Igitabo ca John Maynard Keynes, _[Iciyumviro rusangi c’akazi, inyungu n’amahera](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, casohowe mu mwaka w’1936, carakuye vyose vyari mu nzira yaco. Mu kwibaza imvo z’Ikigoyi Kinini n’uburyo bwo kugikuramwo, adondora akarorero gashasha k’ubutunzi, ko guhindura amayaruka y’abahinga mu vy’ubutunzi n’abanyapolitike. ![image](assets/rn/089.webp) @@ -2183,7 +2209,7 @@ Kuva mu mwaka w’1958, politike yo gukosora ubutunzi bw’Ubufaransa, yahumekew ![image](assets/rn/094.webp) -Mu gitabu _Icaha c’amahera c’Uburengero_, mu mwaka w’1971, Rueff yanditse ati: +Mu gitabu _[Icaha c’amahera c’Uburengero](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, mu mwaka w’1971, Rueff yanditse ati: > Ni mu nzira y’ingengo y’imari abagabo batakaza umwidegemvyo wabo. @@ -2206,6 +2232,7 @@ Nta dini ryakwiragiye kw’isi yose vyihuta nk’iry’akazi. Bivuye ku kwibuka :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Amahera n'Umuco Amahera ni igikoresho catumye abantu bashobora kurenga uguhinduranya, kuzigama no guhuza ibintu ku rugero runini biciye mw’isoko. Yatumye bishoboka ko habaho ubuhinga bwihariye bw’abakozi, inyungu zigereranywa, inyungu ziva mu bucuruzi, n’uguharura ubutunzi. Iyo hataba amahera, nta n’ubutekerezi bwo muri iki gihe bwobayeho. @@ -2268,7 +2295,7 @@ Muri Ruhuhuma 1965, mu kiganiro c’abanyamakuru co kuri televiziyo, Jenerali de ### Isoko ry'amahera ritagira ububasha bwa Leta rirashoboka . -Mu mwaka w’1976, Hayek yaratanze uburyo bundi bwo gusubirira ubutegetsi bwa Leta bwo kurema amafaranga: uguhiganwa hagati y’amafaranga. Mu gitabu ciwe, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Ugukuraho amahera_), yariyumviriye isoko ry’amahera ritagira ububasha bwa Leta aho amahera menshi y’abikorera ku giti cabo yoba ari kumwe. Guhingura no gucunga amafaranga atandukanye n’ibigo vyigenga vyotuma abantu bashobora guhitamwo amafaranga ahamye kandi yizigirwa kuruta ayandi yose, gutyo bikaba bituma abatanga amafaranga bagira uguhiganwa n’indero. +Mu mwaka w’1976, Hayek yaratanze uburyo bundi bwo gusubirira ubutegetsi bwa Leta bwo kurema amafaranga: uguhiganwa hagati y’amafaranga. Mu gitabu ciwe, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Ugukuraho amahera](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), yariyumviriye isoko ry’amahera ritagira ububasha bwa Leta aho amahera menshi y’abikorera ku giti cabo yoba ari kumwe. Guhingura no gucunga amafaranga atandukanye n’ibigo vyigenga vyotuma abantu bashobora guhitamwo amafaranga ahamye kandi yizigirwa kuruta ayandi yose, gutyo bikaba bituma abatanga amafaranga bagira uguhiganwa n’indero. ![image](assets/rn/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/ru.md b/courses/phi101/ru.md index d0df84c7b25..2edf06d9d6a 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/ru.md +++ b/courses/phi101/ru.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Введение в курс + Добро пожаловать на курс PHI101! Этот курс приглашает вас исследовать эволюцию свободы через призму основных течений мысли, которые её формировали. Вы узнаете, как концепция свободы формировалась на протяжении веков, будь то в противостоянии с властью или в сотрудничестве с ней, через историческое путешествие от Античности до современных дебатов. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Зачем изучать историю свободы? + Почему этот курс назван историей свободы? Потому что нам нужно понимать взаимосвязь между идеями и событиями, чтобы лучше судить о нашей эпохе и действовать проницательно. Именно в прошлом мы находим элементы для лучшего понимания того, что такое свобода и почему мы должны ее ценить. -> Когда прошлое больше не освещает будущее, дух блуждает в темноте (Алексис де Токвиль - _Демократия в Америке_.) +> Когда прошлое больше не освещает будущее, дух блуждает в темноте (Алексис де Токвиль - _[Демократия в Америке](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/ru/001.webp) @@ -109,7 +113,7 @@ objectives: Вторая философия находит отражение у авторов вроде Руссо, Робеспьера или Канта, которые воплощают республиканскую традицию, для которой суверенитет общей воли является истинным источником закона. Современник Кенэ, Руссо является антифизиократом. Для него законодатель должен организовывать общество, как механик, который изобретает машину из неживой материи. ![изображение](assets/ru/007.webp) -> "Тот, кто осмеливается предпринять устройство народа," говорит Руссо, "должен чувствовать себя способным, так сказать, изменить человеческую природу, превратить каждого индивида, который сам по себе является совершенным и одиноким целым, в часть большего целого, от которого этот индивид получает, в некотором роде, свою жизнь и существо." (_Общественный договор_) +> "Тот, кто осмеливается предпринять устройство народа," говорит Руссо, "должен чувствовать себя способным, так сказать, изменить человеческую природу, превратить каждого индивида, который сам по себе является совершенным и одиноким целым, в часть большего целого, от которого этот индивид получает, в некотором роде, свою жизнь и существо." (_[Общественный договор](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) С этой точки зрения миссия законодателя заключается в организации, изменении, даже в отмене собственности, если он считает это хорошим. Для Руссо собственность не естественна, а условна, как и само общество. В свою очередь, Робеспьер устанавливает принцип, что "Собственность - это право каждого гражданина наслаждаться и распоряжаться частью благ, гарантированных ему законом." Нет естественного права на собственность; существует только неопределенное количество возможных и случайных соглашений. @@ -119,6 +123,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Миф о провиденциальном законодателе + Когда кто-то открывает учебники, Бастиа отмечает, что узнает, что человечество было бы обречено на ничто без вмешательства власти: > "Достаточно открыть почти наугад книгу по философии, политике или истории, чтобы увидеть, насколько глубоко укоренилась в нашей стране эта идея, рожденная классическими исследованиями и являющаяся матерью социализма, что человечество является инертной материей, получающей от власти жизнь, организацию, мораль и богатство; — или хуже того, что само человечество стремится к своему ухудшению и останавливается на этом склоне только таинственной рукой Законодателя." ([_Закон_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -179,6 +185,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### История, написанная победителями + Известно, история пишется победителями. Внимание часто сосредотачивается на завоевании власти, на жизни лидеров у власти и на конфликтах, которые возникают между ними и теми, кто желает занять их место. ![image](assets/ru/010.webp) @@ -221,6 +229,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Социалистический взгляд на историю + Однако существует и другой подход к определению истории. Он была довольно успешным и долгое время пользовался поддержкой западных интеллектуалов и представителей Глобального Юга. Это социалистический и марксистский взгляд на историю. ![image](assets/ru/013.webp) @@ -241,7 +251,7 @@ objectives: ### Промышленная революция под вопросом -Фактически, марксистский анализ искажает историческую реальность Промышленной революции. Людвиг фон Мизес прояснил этот вопрос в своем экономическом трактате [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (см. особенно главу под названием [Популярная интерпретация Промышленной революции](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), а также в серии лекций, опубликованных под названием: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Также стоит прочитать, Антикапиталистический менталитет [здесь](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) и [здесь](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Фактически, марксистский анализ искажает историческую реальность Промышленной революции. Людвиг фон Мизес прояснил этот вопрос в своем экономическом трактате [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (см. особенно главу под названием [Популярная интерпретация Промышленной революции](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)), а также в серии лекций, опубликованных под названием: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Также стоит прочитать, Антикапиталистический менталитет [здесь](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) и [здесь](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/ru/014.webp) @@ -290,7 +300,9 @@ objectives: :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -В последней главе _Анатомии государства_ (переведенной на французский как _L’anatomie de l’État_, издательство Résurgence), Мюррей Ротбард предлагает теорию истории. Эта очень короткая глава называется: История, гонка между государственной властью и социальной властью. Согласно Ротбарду, историю можно понимать как вечный конфликт между двумя фундаментальными принципами: +### Государственная власть против социальной власти + +В последней главе _[Анатомии государства](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (переведенной на французский как _L’anatomie de l’État_, издательство Résurgence), Мюррей Ротбард предлагает теорию истории. Эта очень короткая глава называется: История, гонка между государственной властью и социальной властью. Согласно Ротбарду, историю можно понимать как вечный конфликт между двумя фундаментальными принципами: ![image](assets/ru/017.webp) @@ -325,7 +337,7 @@ objectives: С 17-го по 19-й век во многих западных странах были периоды ускорения социальной власти и соответствующего увеличения свободы, мира и материального благосостояния. Но Ротбард напоминает нам, что 20-й век был отмечен возрождением власти Государства с печальными последствиями: увеличением рабства, войны и разрушения: > В этом веке человеческая раса вновь сталкивается с яростным господством Государства; Государство, теперь вооруженное творческой силой человека, конфискованной и извращенной для своих собственных целей. -> Что такое свободное общество, в конце концов? Это общество без монополии. В своем труде по политической философии, _Этика Свободы_ (1982), Ротбард отвечает: "общество, в котором нет юридической возможности принудительной агрессии против личности или собственности индивида." Вот почему, по его мнению, политическая философия, которая должна определить принципы справедливого общества, сводится к одному единственному вопросу: "Кто законно владеет чем?" +> Что такое свободное общество, в конце концов? Это общество без монополии. В своем труде по политической философии, _[Этика Свободы](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Ротбард отвечает: "общество, в котором нет юридической возможности принудительной агрессии против личности или собственности индивида." Вот почему, по его мнению, политическая философия, которая должна определить принципы справедливого общества, сводится к одному единственному вопросу: "Кто законно владеет чем?" > ![image](assets/ru/019.webp) Для Ротбарда, социальный порядок может преобладать, если он является продуктом обобщения контрактных процедур для свободного обмена правами собственности, путем приватизации всех экономических деятельностей и даже суверенных функций (центральный банк, суды) и путем прибегания к конкуренции среди агентств защиты. @@ -346,6 +358,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Наследие афинской демократии + Опыт афинской демократии оставил неизгладимый след в истории политической мысли и продолжает вдохновлять идеалы демократии и участие граждан в современном мире. ![image](assets/ru/020.webp) @@ -440,6 +454,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Космополитическая империя + Римская империя была обширным космополитическим образованием. В своём расцвете, около 117 года н.э., это было огромное многоэтническое и многоязычное государство: - На западе оно простиралось от Великобритании (современная Англия) до Испании, проходя через Галлию (современная Франция) и север Африки. @@ -542,6 +558,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Упадок и крах + Почему Рим пришел в упадок и в конечном итоге пал? Многие склонны думать, что Римская империя рухнула внезапно, под ударом варварских вторжений. Однако причины краха Римской империи следует искать гораздо раньше, в империализме и экономическом и денежном дирижизме. @@ -617,6 +635,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Христианские корни индивидуальной свободы + Христианская идея свободы развивалась в средневековой теологии святого Августина в IV веке, до святого Фомы Аквинского в XIII веке. В чем заключается эта идея? ![image](assets/ru/037.webp) @@ -672,6 +692,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Автономия разума + В Средние века разум и вера соперничают за доступ к истине. Следуя Абеляру и Альберту Великому, Фома Аквинский в XIII веке выбрал защиту прав разума и его автономии по отношению к вере. ![image](assets/ru/040.webp) @@ -712,6 +734,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Теолого-политическая система + В средние века Церковь и христианские монархии унаследовали политическую модель от Римской империи, которую историки называют теолого-политической системой, то есть системой, где власть является священной, то есть где политический лидер также является религиозным лидером. Вот почему средневековые общества характеризуются политико-религиозным унанимизмом. Политическая власть основывает свою легитимность, авторитет и единство на христианской (или мусульманской) вере. Она считает себя хранителем культурной и религиозной ортодоксальности и относится к отклоняющимся от этого единодушия как к изгоям. В этом контексте, даже если определенная толерантность могла быть предоставлена тем, кто отходит от общего культурного взгляда (например, евреям), никакое право на плюрализм для них не может быть признано. Только к концу Средневековья, с завоеванием Америки, проблема гражданских свобод стала критически важной для Церкви и привела к появлению первой философии права, которая утверждала и защищала индивидуальные свободы, легитимизировала плюрализм и осуждала государственное принуждение. @@ -751,6 +775,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Человек, созданный по образу Бога + Древняя мысль подчиняла человека божественному космосу, то есть совершенной вселенной, частью которой он был лишь. Монотеизм, напротив, утверждает бесконечно высшую ценность человека по сравнению с природой, поскольку человек создан по образу Бога. Этот ключевой момент лежит в основе настоящей этической революции. Библия утверждает священную и бесконечную ценность каждого человеческого существа. Именно поэтому библейская этика меняет наше отношение ко злу. Она приносит острую и беспрецедентную чувствительность к человеческим страданиям. Таким образом, она побуждает нас считать аномальным и невыносимым зло, которое человечество до этого считало вполне терпимыми, особенно зло, причиненное другим, слабым, невинным. @@ -791,6 +817,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Христианство и свободная экономика + Мы видели, что христианство накладывает на людей моральную обязанность работать на улучшение мира. Бог хочет, чтобы человек был счастлив, но не хочет достигать его блага за него. Поэтому христианину предстоит бороться с моральным злом, любить своего ближнего, помогать жертвам, короче говоря, работать на создание более справедливого и гуманного мира. Совместим ли капитализм, то есть свободная экономика, основанная на частной собственности и свободе контрактов, с христианским долгом? Часть ответа заключается в том, что капитализм возник в религиозном контексте, задолго до Реформации. Другая часть ответа состоит в наблюдении за тем фактом, что капитализм является лучшим средством улучшения материального и морального состояния людей. Только свободная экономика, основанная на правах собственности и добровольном сотрудничестве, способна устойчиво выводить людей из нищеты. @@ -860,6 +888,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Религиозные войны и Просвещение + Со времен Возрождения Европа была опустошена войнами на религиозной почве. Поэтому толерантность стала одной из великих битв Просвещения. ![image](assets/ru/050.webp) @@ -897,7 +927,7 @@ objectives: ### Истина требует свободы -Тем не менее, во Франции не было недостатка в великих умах. Малоизвестно, но Анн Робер Жак Тюрго, барон де Лон, прежде всего был ведущим мыслителем, прежде чем стать Главным контролером финансов при Людовике XVI. Он был автором мастерского трактата по политической экономии, _Размышления о формировании и распределении богатства_ (1766), предшествующего _Богатству наций_ Адама Смита (1776). +Тем не менее, во Франции не было недостатка в великих умах. Малоизвестно, но Анн Робер Жак Тюрго, барон де Лон, прежде всего был ведущим мыслителем, прежде чем стать Главным контролером финансов при Людовике XVI. Он был автором мастерского трактата по политической экономии, _Размышления о формировании и распределении богатства_ (1766), предшествующего _[Богатству наций](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ Адама Смита (1776). ![image](assets/ru/052.webp) Его ранние работы отражают его приверженность философии Просвещения. В 1754 году он опубликовал свои _Письма о гражданской толерантности_, а в 1757 году - несколько статей, написанных для _Энциклопедии_ Дидро и д'Аламбера. @@ -917,6 +947,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Истоки экономического либерализма + Экономический либерализм часто ассоциируется с англосаксонской традицией, происходящей от Адама Смита, в отличие от "политического либерализма", который, как говорят, произошел от континентального Просвещения, в частности, во Франции. Это мнение неверно. ![image](assets/ru/053.webp) @@ -982,6 +1014,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Три события, изменившие историю + 1776 год часто остается незамеченным в учебниках по истории. Но в трех странах, Франции, Шотландии и Северной Америке, несколько событий оставят неизгладимый след в истории свободы. ### Позор Тюрго @@ -1025,7 +1059,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что ### Манифест за свободу в Америке -В 1776 году англичанин по имени Томас Пейн опубликовал в Америке яркий памфлет, критикующий английскую монархию и выступающий за независимость американских колонистов: _Здравый смысл_. +В 1776 году англичанин по имени Томас Пейн опубликовал в Америке яркий памфлет, критикующий английскую монархию и выступающий за независимость американских колонистов: _[Здравый смысл](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/ru/059.webp) @@ -1086,6 +1120,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Секуляризация и современное общество + Великой новинкой этого современного периода в западной истории является появление общества, которое организует себя вне зависимости от религии. Это не означает исчезновение религиозной веры или смерть Бога. Но Бог становится частным делом, больше не смешиваясь с политическими делами. Религия не исчезает, но ее руководящая роль свергается. Она становится системой индивидуальных убеждений. Секуляризация западного мира не произошла в одночасье. Ей предшествовали идеи. Как часто бывает, философия находится на переднем крае крупных культурных изменений. @@ -1168,7 +1204,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что С Руссо и Робеспьером французы хотели верить, что Нация или общая воля обладают неограниченной властью и оправдывают все. Из того факта, что народ управлял, делался вывод, что у него есть все права. Здесь явно было противоречие между великими принципами Революции и средствами, использованными для их торжества. -Это, кстати, смысл замечания Фридриха Хайека в его книге _Конституция свободы_: +Это, кстати, смысл замечания Фридриха Хайека в его книге _[Конституция свободы](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Решающим фактором, который обесценил усилия Революции в пользу продвижения индивидуальной свободы, было то, что она создала иллюзию, будто вся власть была передана народу, все меры предосторожности против злоупотребления этой властью стали ненужными. @@ -1182,6 +1218,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Свобода древних против свободы современных + Согласно Бенджамину Констану, свобода в наших современных обществах больше не может быть понята как прямое участие в делах города, как это было в обществах Античности. ![image](assets/ru/070.webp) @@ -1190,7 +1228,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что В древние времена индивид был сувереном в общественных делах, но порабощен во всех своих частных отношениях. Жертва индивидуальной свободы компенсировалась использованием политических прав: правом непосредственно осуществлять различные части суверенитета, обсуждать на публичной площади, голосовать за законы, выносить приговоры, оценивать и судить магистратов. Это политическая и коллективная свобода: -> Свобода Древних заключалась в активном и постоянном участии в коллективной власти. Наша же свобода, напротив, должна заключаться в мирном наслаждении частной независимостью; следовательно, мы должны быть гораздо более привязаны к нашей индивидуальной независимости, чем древние. (_О свободе Древних по сравнению со свободой Современных_ (1819)) +> Свобода Древних заключалась в активном и постоянном участии в коллективной власти. Наша же свобода, напротив, должна заключаться в мирном наслаждении частной независимостью; следовательно, мы должны быть гораздо более привязаны к нашей индивидуальной независимости, чем древние. (_[О свободе Древних по сравнению со свободой Современных](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) > ![image](assets/ru/071.webp) @@ -1198,7 +1236,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что Это определение свободы находим у Джона Стюарта Милля: -> Единственная свобода, заслуживающая этого названия, - это свобода стремиться к собственному благу своим собственным путем, до тех пор, пока мы не пытаемся лишить других их блага или препятствовать их усилиям его получить. (...) Человечество выигрывает больше, позволяя каждому жить так, как он видит подобающим, чем заставляя его жить так, как кажется хорошим другим. (_О свободе_, 1859) +> Единственная свобода, заслуживающая этого названия, - это свобода стремиться к собственному благу своим собственным путем, до тех пор, пока мы не пытаемся лишить других их блага или препятствовать их усилиям его получить. (...) Человечество выигрывает больше, позволяя каждому жить так, как он видит подобающим, чем заставляя его жить так, как кажется хорошим другим. (_[О свободе](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/ru/072.webp) @@ -1236,6 +1274,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Токвиль и демократический индивидуализм + Алексис де Токвиль был внимательным наблюдателем демократии и критиком демократического индивидуализма. ![изображение](assets/ru/074.webp) @@ -1314,6 +1354,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Критика XIX века + Критика капитализма, и в частности марксистская критика, возникла в 19 веке. ![image](assets/ru/078.webp) @@ -1345,6 +1387,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Ответ Австрийской школы + Австрийская школа экономики, основанная Карлом Менгером в конце 19-го века, с самого начала выступала против теории Карла Маркса. ![image](assets/ru/081.webp) @@ -1396,7 +1440,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что ![image](assets/ru/085.webp) -Еще в 1922 году, в своей книге _Социализм,_ Людвиг фон Мизес показал, что социализм приведет к широко распространенным дефицитам, поскольку центральные планировщики не смогут делать точные экономические расчеты без системы цен, предоставляемой рынком. +Еще в 1922 году, в своей книге _[Социализм](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Людвиг фон Мизес показал, что социализм приведет к широко распространенным дефицитам, поскольку центральные планировщики не смогут делать точные экономические расчеты без системы цен, предоставляемой рынком. ## Дорога к рабству @@ -1404,7 +1448,9 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Будучи обеспокоенным ростом государственного интервенционизма в экономиках западных демократий, Хайек написал _Дорогу к рабству_ как философскую критику коллективизма, будь то справа или слева. Опубликованная миллионными тиражами благодаря _Reader’s Digest_, эта книга в значительной степени способствовала славе Хайека в Соединенных Штатах. +### Предостережение Хайека против коллективизма + +Будучи обеспокоенным ростом государственного интервенционизма в экономиках западных демократий, Хайек написал _[Дорогу к рабству](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ как философскую критику коллективизма, будь то справа или слева. Опубликованная миллионными тиражами благодаря _Reader’s Digest_, эта книга в значительной степени способствовала славе Хайека в Соединенных Штатах. ![image](assets/ru/086.webp) @@ -1449,13 +1495,15 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Кейнсианская революция + Капитализм часто обвиняют в том, что он является источником призыва: "мы всегда должны производить больше", или формулы: "потребление способствует росту". Однако эти идеи не проистекают из традиционного капитализма, а из кейнсианства, которое с 1930-х годов доминирует в области экономической науки и политическом классе. ![image](assets/ru/088.webp) ### Анализ кризиса 1929 года -Опубликованная в 1936 году книга Джона Мейнарда Кейнса: _Общая теория занятости, процента и денег_, смела все на своем пути. Анализируя причины Великой депрессии и способы выхода из нее, он описывает новую экономическую парадигму, которая привлекла бы поколения экономистов и политиков. +Опубликованная в 1936 году книга Джона Мейнарда Кейнса: _[Общая теория занятости, процента и денег](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general)_, смела все на своем пути. Анализируя причины Великой депрессии и способы выхода из нее, он описывает новую экономическую парадигму, которая привлекла бы поколения экономистов и политиков. ![image](assets/ru/089.webp) @@ -1495,7 +1543,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что ![image](assets/ru/094.webp) -В _Денежном грехе Запада_ в 1971 году Рюфф пишет: +В _[Денежном грехе Запада](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ в 1971 году Рюфф пишет: > Именно через бюджетный дефицит люди теряют свою свободу. @@ -1512,6 +1560,8 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Деньги и цивилизация + Деньги - это инструмент, который позволил людям выйти за рамки бартера, накопить средства и координировать действия в больших масштабах через рынок. Они сделали возможной специализацию труда, сравнительные преимущества, выгоды от торговли, экономический расчет. Без денег нет современной цивилизации. ### Золото как глобальный стандарт @@ -1560,7 +1610,7 @@ _Торговля и правительство_ содержит то, что ### Денежный рынок без государственной монополии возможен -В 1976 году Хайек предложил альтернативу монополии государства на создание валюты: конкуренцию между валютами. В своей книге _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Денационализация денег_), он представил денежный рынок без государственной монополии, на котором существовало бы несколько частных валют. Создание и управление различными валютами частными субъектами позволило бы людям выбирать наиболее стабильную и надежную валюту, тем самым стимулируя конкуренцию и дисциплину среди эмитентов. +В 1976 году Хайек предложил альтернативу монополии государства на создание валюты: конкуренцию между валютами. В своей книге _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Денационализация денег](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), он представил денежный рынок без государственной монополии, на котором существовало бы несколько частных валют. Создание и управление различными валютами частными субъектами позволило бы людям выбирать наиболее стабильную и надежную валюту, тем самым стимулируя конкуренцию и дисциплину среди эмитентов. ![image](assets/ru/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/sr-Latn.md b/courses/phi101/sr-Latn.md index 15272663053..e43c05f0e81 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/sr-Latn.md +++ b/courses/phi101/sr-Latn.md @@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ Od antike kroz prosvetiteljstvo, sloboda je napredovala kako su društva prihvat :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Uvod u kurs Dobrodošli u PHI101! @@ -79,11 +80,12 @@ Spremni da krenete na ovo jedinstveno filozofsko putovanje u potrazi za slobodom :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Zašto proučavati istoriju slobode? Zašto naslov ovog kursa: istorija slobode? Zato što treba da razumemo odnos između ideja i događaja, kako bismo bolje procenili naše doba i delovali sa razboritošću. U prošlosti nalazimo Elements za bolje razumevanje šta je sloboda i razloge zašto je moramo ceniti. -> Kada prošlost više ne osvetljava budućnost, duh hoda u tami (Alexis de Tokvil - _Demokratija u Americi_.) +> Kada prošlost više ne osvetljava budućnost, duh hoda u tami (Alexis de Tokvil - _[Demokratija u Americi](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/sr-Latn/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ Druga filozofija se nalazi među autorima kao što su Ruso, Robespjer ili Kant, ![image](assets/sr-Latn/007.webp) -> "Onaj ko se usuđuje da preuzme osnivanje naroda," kaže Ruso, "mora se osećati sposobnim da promeni, da tako kažemo, ljudsku prirodu, da transformiše svakog pojedinca koji je, sam po sebi, savršena i usamljena celina, u deo veće celine od koje taj pojedinac, na neki način, prima svoj život i biće." (_Društveni ugovor_) +> "Onaj ko se usuđuje da preuzme osnivanje naroda," kaže Ruso, "mora se osećati sposobnim da promeni, da tako kažemo, ljudsku prirodu, da transformiše svakog pojedinca koji je, sam po sebi, savršena i usamljena celina, u deo veće celine od koje taj pojedinac, na neki način, prima svoj život i biće." (_[Društveni ugovor](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Iz ove perspektive, misija zakonodavca je da organizuje, modifikuje, čak i ukine vlasništvo ako to smatra dobrim. Za Rusoa, vlasništvo nije prirodno već konvencionalno, kao i samo društvo. S druge strane, Robespjer postavlja princip da je "Vlasništvo pravo svakog građanina da uživa i raspolaže delom dobara koja su mu zakonom zagarantovana." Ne postoji prirodno pravo na vlasništvo; postoje samo neodređeni broj mogućih i uslovnih aranžmana. @@ -171,6 +173,7 @@ Iz ove perspektive, misija zakonodavca je da organizuje, modifikuje, čak i ukin :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Mit o proviđajnom zakonodavcu Kada neko otvori udžbenike, primetio je Bastiat, saznaje da bi čovečanstvo bilo osuđeno na ništavilo bez intervencije moći: @@ -253,6 +256,7 @@ Nekoliko dana pre svoje smrti u Rimu 1850. godine, Bastija je poverio svom prija :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Istoriju pišu pobednici Poznato je, istoriju pišu pobednici. Pažnja je često usmerena na osvajanje moći, na živote lidera na vlasti i na sukobe koji ih suprotstavljaju onima koji žele da zauzmu njihovo mesto. @@ -316,6 +320,8 @@ Ova teza se takođe nalazi u monumentalnom delu iz 1983. godine: _Law and Revolu :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Socijalistički pogled na istoriju + Međutim, postoji još jedna perspektiva o istoriji. Ona je bila prilično uspešna i dugo je uživala podršku zapadnih intelektualaca i predstavnika Globalnog Juga. Ovo je socijalistički i marksistički pogled na istoriju. ![image](assets/sr-Latn/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +350,7 @@ Ova analiza odražava nerazumevanje viška vrednosti i kooperativne i dinamičke ### Industrijska revolucija u pitanju -Zapravo, marksistička analiza iskrivljuje istorijsku stvarnost Industrijske revolucije. Ludwig von Mises je razjasnio ovo pitanje u svom ekonomskom traktatu [_Ljudska akcija_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (pogledajte posebno poglavlje pod nazivom [Popularna interpretacija Industrijske revolucije](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) kao i u seriji predavanja objavljenih pod naslovom: [_Ekonomska politika: Misli za danas i sutra_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Takođe vredi pročitati, Antikapitalistički mentalitet [ovde](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) i [ovde](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Zapravo, marksistička analiza iskrivljuje istorijsku stvarnost Industrijske revolucije. Ludwig von Mises je razjasnio ovo pitanje u svom ekonomskom traktatu [_Ljudska akcija_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (pogledajte posebno poglavlje pod nazivom [Popularna interpretacija Industrijske revolucije](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) kao i u seriji predavanja objavljenih pod naslovom: [_Ekonomska politika: Misli za danas i sutra_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Takođe vredi pročitati, Antikapitalistički mentalitet [ovde](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) i [ovde](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/sr-Latn/014.webp) @@ -414,8 +420,9 @@ Zaključujući ovo poglavlje, ekonomski i kulturni uzlet Evrope nije bio rezulta :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Državna moć naspram društvene moći -U poslednjem poglavlju _Anatomy of the State_ (prevedeno na francuski kao _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, od strane Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard predlaže teoriju istorije. Ovo veoma kratko poglavlje nosi naslov: Istorija, trka između državne moći i društvene moći. Prema Rothbardu, istorija se može razumeti kao večiti sukob između dva osnovna principa: +U poslednjem poglavlju _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (prevedeno na francuski kao _L’anatomie de l’Etat_, od strane Résurgence editions), Murray Rothbard predlaže teoriju istorije. Ovo veoma kratko poglavlje nosi naslov: Istorija, trka između državne moći i društvene moći. Prema Rothbardu, istorija se može razumeti kao večiti sukob između dva osnovna principa: ![image](assets/sr-Latn/017.webp) @@ -471,7 +478,7 @@ Od 17. do 19. veka, u mnogim zapadnim zemljama, postojali su periodi ubrzanja dr > Tokom ovog veka, ljudska rasa se suočava, još jednom, sa virulentnom vladavinom Države; Država sada naoružana stvaralačkom snagom čoveka, konfiskovanom i izopačenom za sopstvene ciljeve. -> Šta je, uostalom, slobodno društvo? To je društvo bez monopola. U svom delu političke filozofije, _Etika slobode_ (1982), Rotbard odgovara: "društvo u kojem ne postoji zakonska mogućnost prinudne agresije protiv ličnosti ili imovine pojedinca." Zato se, prema njemu, politička filozofija, koja mora definisati principe pravednog društva, svodi na jedno jedino pitanje: "Ko legitimno poseduje šta?" +> Šta je, uostalom, slobodno društvo? To je društvo bez monopola. U svom delu političke filozofije, _[Etika slobode](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rotbard odgovara: "društvo u kojem ne postoji zakonska mogućnost prinudne agresije protiv ličnosti ili imovine pojedinca." Zato se, prema njemu, politička filozofija, koja mora definisati principe pravednog društva, svodi na jedno jedino pitanje: "Ko legitimno poseduje šta?" > ![image](assets/sr-Latn/019.webp) Za Rothbarda, društveni poredak može prevladati ako je proizvod generalizacije ugovornih procedura za slobodno Exchange vlasničkih prava, privatizacijom svih ekonomskih aktivnosti, pa čak i suverenih funkcija (centralna banka, sudovi) i pribegavanjem konkurenciji među agencijama za zaštitu. @@ -498,6 +505,7 @@ I dodaje: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Nasleđe atinske demokratije Iskustvo atinske demokratije ostavilo je trajan trag u istoriji političke misli i nastavlja da inspiriše ideale demokratije i učešća građana u današnjem svetu. @@ -638,6 +646,7 @@ Jedino sredstvo koje imamo za približavanje istini su kritika i diskusija. Iz d :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kosmopolitsko carstvo Rimsko carstvo je bilo ogromna kosmopolitska tvorevina. Na svom vrhuncu, oko 117. godine nove ere, bilo je to ogromna multietnička i višejezična država: @@ -792,6 +801,7 @@ Tvrdeći da se zakon ne može svesti samo na statute koje donosi zakonodavno tel :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Opadanje i propast Zašto je Rim propao i na kraju pao? Mnogi vole misliti da je Rimsko carstvo iznenada propalo pod uticajem varvarskih invazija. Međutim, uzroci propasti Rimskog carstva mogu se pronaći mnogo ranije, u imperijalizmu i ekonomskom i monetarnom dirigizmu. @@ -904,6 +914,7 @@ I dodaje: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Hrišćanski koreni individualne slobode Hrišćanska ideja slobode razvijala se u srednjovekovnoj teologiji od Svetog Avgustina u 4. veku, do Svetog Tome Akvinskog u 13. veku. Šta je ta ideja? @@ -981,6 +992,7 @@ Prema Svetom Tomi: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Autonomija razuma U srednjem veku, razum i vera se takmiče za pristup istini. Nakon Abélarda i Alberta Velikog, Toma Akvinski je u 13. veku odlučio da brani prava razuma i njegovu autonomiju u odnosu na veru. @@ -1042,6 +1054,7 @@ Od tada će religijski racionalizam definitivno prevladati nad misticizmom. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Teologiko-politički sistem U srednjem veku, Crkva i hrišćanske monarhije nasledile su politički model od Rimskog carstva, koji istoričari nazivaju teologiko-politički sistem, što znači sistem gde je moć sveta, tj. gde je politički vođa ujedno i verski vođa. @@ -1100,6 +1113,7 @@ Teokratsko iskušenje Crkve takođe je u sukobu sa teorijom "božanskog prava." :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Čovek stvoren po Božijem liku Drevna misao je podređivala čoveka božanskom kosmosu, to jest, savršenom univerzumu čiji je on bio samo deo. S druge strane, monoteizam tvrdi beskonačno superiornu vrednost čoveka nad prirodom, utoliko što je čovek stvoren po Božijem liku. Ova ključna tačka je na izvoru prave etičke revolucije. Biblija potvrđuje svetu i beskonačnu vrednost svakog ljudskog bića. @@ -1156,6 +1170,7 @@ Ideja o čovečanstvu napreduje. Efektivno se počelo smatrati da postoji samo j :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Hrišćanstvo i slobodna ekonomija Videli smo da hrišćanstvo nameće moralnu dužnost ljudima da rade na poboljšanju sveta. Bog želi da čovek bude srećan, ali ne želi da postigne njegovo dobro umesto njega. Stoga je na hrišćaninu da se bori protiv moralnog zla, da voli svog bližnjeg, da pomaže žrtvama, ukratko, da radi na pravednijem i humanijem svetu. Da li je kapitalizam, odnosno slobodna ekonomija zasnovana na privatnoj svojini i slobodi ugovora, kompatibilan sa hrišćanskom dužnošću? @@ -1251,6 +1266,7 @@ Oresme naglašava da promene valute nisu samo igra preraspodele u korist vlasti :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Verski ratovi i prosvetiteljstvo Od renesanse, Evropu su pustošili verski ratovi. Tolerancija je, stoga, postala jedna od velikih bitaka prosvetiteljstva. @@ -1309,7 +1325,7 @@ U _Desetom pismu_, "O trgovini", Voltaire opisuje francuski način razmišljanja ### Istina Zahteva Slobodu -Ipak, Francuska nije oskudevala u velikim umovima. Malo je poznato, ali Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, bio je pre svega vodeći mislilac pre nego što je postao generalni kontrolor finansija pod Lujem XVI. Bio je autor majstorskog traktata o političkoj ekonomiji, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), koji je prethodio _The Wealth of Nations_ Adama Smitha (1776). +Ipak, Francuska nije oskudevala u velikim umovima. Malo je poznato, ali Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne, bio je pre svega vodeći mislilac pre nego što je postao generalni kontrolor finansija pod Lujem XVI. Bio je autor majstorskog traktata o političkoj ekonomiji, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), koji je prethodio _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ Adama Smitha (1776). ![image](assets/sr-Latn/052.webp) @@ -1338,6 +1354,8 @@ Drugim rečima, biti tolerantan ne znači biti neprijateljski nastrojen prema re :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Poreklo ekonomskog liberalizma + Ekonomski liberalizam se često povezuje sa anglosaksonskom tradicijom koja potiče od Adama Smita, u kontrastu sa "političkim liberalizmom," za koji se kaže da potiče iz kontinentalnog prosvetiteljstva, posebno u Francuskoj. Ovaj pogled je netačan. @@ -1434,6 +1452,7 @@ Ukratko, ako svako može slobodno slediti svoj privatni interes u skladu sa prir :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tri događaja koji su promenili istoriju 1776 je godina koja često prolazi nezapaženo u istorijskim udžbenicima. Ali u tri zemlje, Francuskoj, Škotskoj i Severnoj Americi, nekoliko događaja će ostaviti neizbrisiv trag u istoriji slobode. @@ -1494,7 +1513,7 @@ To je takođe rasprava o filozofiji jer pokazuje kako je slobodan i dobrovoljan ### Manifest za slobodu u Americi -Godine 1776, Englez po imenu Tomas Pejn objavio je u Americi žestoku brošuru koja kritikuje englesku monarhiju i zalaže se za nezavisnost američkih kolonista: _Common Sense_. +Godine 1776, Englez po imenu Tomas Pejn objavio je u Americi žestoku brošuru koja kritikuje englesku monarhiju i zalaže se za nezavisnost američkih kolonista: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/sr-Latn/059.webp) @@ -1582,6 +1601,7 @@ Ova ideja spontanog poretka postala bi ključni koncept u radu Friedricha Hayeka :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularizacija i moderno društvo Velika novina ovog modernog perioda u zapadnoj istoriji je pojava društva koje se organizuje izvan religijske zavisnosti. To ne znači nestanak religijskog verovanja ili smrt Boga. Ali Bog postaje privatna stvar, više nije pomešan sa političkim poslovima. Nema nestanka religije, već detronizacija njene vodeće uloge. Ona postaje sistem individualnih verovanja. @@ -1707,7 +1727,7 @@ U Americi nije bilo ekonomskog dirigizma, niti monetarnog bankrota poput onog sa Sa Rousseauom i Robespierreom, Francuzi su želeli da veruju da Nacija ili opšta volja ima neograničenu moć i opravdava sve. Iz činjenice da je narod vladao, zaključeno je da su imali sva prava. Jasno je postojala kontradikcija između velikih principa Revolucije i sredstava korišćenih da bi oni trijumfovali. -Ovo je, štaviše, značenje primedbe Friedricha Hayeka u njegovoj knjizi _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Ovo je, štaviše, značenje primedbe Friedricha Hayeka u njegovoj knjizi _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Odlučujući faktor koji je učinio uzaludnim napore Revolucije u korist promocije individualne slobode bio je taj što je stvorio iluziju da, utoliko što je sva vlast predata narodu, sve mere predostrožnosti protiv zloupotrebe te vlasti postaju nepotrebne. @@ -1725,6 +1745,7 @@ Ovo je, štaviše, značenje primedbe Friedricha Hayeka u njegovoj knjizi _The C :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antička naspram moderne slobode Prema Benjamin Constantu, sloboda u našim modernim društvima više se ne može shvatiti na način društava Antike kao direktno učešće u poslovima grada. @@ -1738,7 +1759,7 @@ Prema Benjamin Constantu, sloboda u našim modernim društvima više se ne može U drevna vremena, pojedinac je bio suveren u javnim poslovima, ali porobljen u svim svojim privatnim odnosima. Žrtvovanje individualne slobode bilo je kompenzovano korišćenjem političkih prava: pravo na direktno vršenje različitih delova suvereniteta, na deliberaciju na javnom trgu, na glasanje o zakonima, na izricanje presuda, na evaluaciju i sud o magistratima. To je politička i kolektivna sloboda: -> Sloboda Starih sastojala se od aktivnog i stalnog učešća u kolektivnoj moći. Naša sloboda, s druge strane, mora se sastojati od mirnog uživanja privatne nezavisnosti; iz toga sledi da moramo biti mnogo više vezani za našu individualnu nezavisnost nego što su to bili stari. (_O slobodi Starih u poređenju sa slobodom Modernih_ (1819)) +> Sloboda Starih sastojala se od aktivnog i stalnog učešća u kolektivnoj moći. Naša sloboda, s druge strane, mora se sastojati od mirnog uživanja privatne nezavisnosti; iz toga sledi da moramo biti mnogo više vezani za našu individualnu nezavisnost nego što su to bili stari. (_[O slobodi Starih u poređenju sa slobodom Modernih](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/sr-Latn/071.webp) @@ -1749,7 +1770,7 @@ Moderna sloboda je građanska sloboda, koja uključuje ekonomsku slobodu i zasni Ova definicija slobode nalazi se kod Džona Stjuarta Mila: -> Jedina sloboda koja zaslužuje to ime je ona koja nam omogućava da sledimo sopstveno dobro na svoj način, sve dok ne pokušavamo da lišimo druge njihovog ili ometamo njihove napore da ga postignu. (...) Čovečanstvo više dobija dopuštajući svakom pojedincu da živi kako mu odgovara nego prisiljavajući ga da živi kako se drugima čini dobrim. (_O slobodi_, 1859) +> Jedina sloboda koja zaslužuje to ime je ona koja nam omogućava da sledimo sopstveno dobro na svoj način, sve dok ne pokušavamo da lišimo druge njihovog ili ometamo njihove napore da ga postignu. (...) Čovečanstvo više dobija dopuštajući svakom pojedincu da živi kako mu odgovara nego prisiljavajući ga da živi kako se drugima čini dobrim. (_[O slobodi](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/sr-Latn/072.webp) @@ -1799,6 +1820,7 @@ Drugim rečima, u slobodnom društvu, neophodno je uspostaviti strogu granicu iz :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tokvil i demokratski individualizam Alexis de Tokvil je bio pažljiv posmatrač demokratije i kritičar demokratskog individualizma. @@ -1910,6 +1932,7 @@ Pogledajte globus. Koji su najsrećniji, najmoralniji i najmirniji narodi? Oni g :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Kritika u 19. veku Bilo je to tokom 19. veka kada se pojavila kritika kapitalizma, a posebno marksistička kritika. @@ -1956,6 +1979,7 @@ Politička revolucija je stoga iluzija, prema njemu, sve dok nije praćena ekono :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Odgovor austrijske škole Austrijska škola ekonomije, koju je osnovao Karl Menger krajem 19. veka, od početka se suprotstavljala teorijama Karla Marksa. @@ -2039,7 +2063,7 @@ Marksisti veruju da je socijalizam, ekonomski sistem u kojem su sredstva za proi ![image](assets/sr-Latn/085.webp) -Još 1922. godine, u svojoj knjizi _Socijalizam,_ Ludwig von Mises je pokazao da bi socijalizam doveo do široko rasprostranjenih nestašica, jer centralni planeri ne bi mogli da donose tačne ekonomske kalkulacije bez cenovnog sistema koji obezbeđuje tržište. +Još 1922. godine, u svojoj knjizi _[Socijalizam](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises je pokazao da bi socijalizam doveo do široko rasprostranjenih nestašica, jer centralni planeri ne bi mogli da donose tačne ekonomske kalkulacije bez cenovnog sistema koji obezbeđuje tržište. ## Put ka ropstvu @@ -2049,8 +2073,9 @@ Još 1922. godine, u svojoj knjizi _Socijalizam,_ Ludwig von Mises je pokazao da :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### Hajekovo upozorenje protiv kolektivizma -Uznemiren porastom intervencionizma vlade u ekonomijama zapadnih demokratija, Hajek je napisao _Put u ropstvo_ kao filozofsku kritiku kolektivizma, bilo sa desnice ili levice. Objavljena u nekoliko miliona primeraka, zahvaljujući _Reader’s Digest_-u, ova knjiga je u velikoj meri doprinela Hajekovoj slavi u Sjedinjenim Državama. +Uznemiren porastom intervencionizma vlade u ekonomijama zapadnih demokratija, Hajek je napisao _[Put u ropstvo](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ kao filozofsku kritiku kolektivizma, bilo sa desnice ili levice. Objavljena u nekoliko miliona primeraka, zahvaljujući _Reader’s Digest_-u, ova knjiga je u velikoj meri doprinela Hajekovoj slavi u Sjedinjenim Državama. ![image](assets/sr-Latn/086.webp) @@ -2112,6 +2137,7 @@ U zaključku, Hayek poziva svoje savremenike da okrenu leđa "ludilu" i "savreme :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Kejnzijanska revolucija Kapitalizam se često optužuje da je izvor naredbe: "uvek moramo proizvoditi više," ili formule: "konzumiranje je dobro za rast." Međutim, ove ideje ne potiču iz tradicionalnog kapitalizma već iz kejnzijanizma, koji dominira poljem ekonomske nauke i političkom klasom od 1930-ih. @@ -2122,7 +2148,7 @@ Kapitalizam se često optužuje da je izvor naredbe: "uvek moramo proizvoditi vi ### Analiza krize iz 1929. -Objavljena 1936. godine, knjiga Džona Majnarda Kejnza: _Opšta teorija zaposlenosti, kamate i novca_, pomela je sve pred sobom. Preispitujući uzroke Velike depresije i načine izlaska iz nje, opisuje novu ekonomsku paradigmu, koja će preobratiti generacije ekonomista i političara. +Objavljena 1936. godine, knjiga Džona Majnarda Kejnza: _[Opšta teorija zaposlenosti, kamate i novca](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, pomela je sve pred sobom. Preispitujući uzroke Velike depresije i načine izlaska iz nje, opisuje novu ekonomsku paradigmu, koja će preobratiti generacije ekonomista i političara. ![image](assets/sr-Latn/089.webp) @@ -2184,7 +2210,7 @@ Počevši od 1958. godine, politika za ispravljanje francuske ekonomije, inspiri ![image](assets/sr-Latn/094.webp) -U _Monetarnom grehu Zapada_, 1971. godine, Rueff piše: +U _[Monetarnom grehu Zapada](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, 1971. godine, Rueff piše: > Kroz budžetski deficit ljudi gube svoju slobodu. @@ -2207,6 +2233,7 @@ Nijedna religija nije se proširila svetom tako brzo kao religija zaposlenja. Po :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Novac i civilizacija Novac je alat koji je omogućio ljudima da pređu izvan razmene dobara, da štede i da se koordiniraju u velikim razmerama putem tržišta. Omogućio je specijalizaciju rada, komparativne prednosti, dobitke od trgovine, ekonomsku kalkulaciju. Bez novca, ne postoji moderna civilizacija. @@ -2269,7 +2296,7 @@ U februaru 1965. godine, tokom televizijske konferencije za novinare, general de ### Monetarna tržišta bez državnog monopola su moguća -Godine 1976, Hayek je predložio alternativu državnom monopolu na kreiranje valuta: konkurenciju između valuta. U svojoj knjizi, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Denacionalizacija novca_), zamislio je monetarno tržište bez državnog monopola u kojem bi postojale različite privatne valute. Kreiranje i upravljanje različitim valutama od strane privatnih entiteta omogućilo bi pojedincima da izaberu najstabilniju i najpouzdaniju valutu, čime bi se podstakla konkurencija i disciplina među izdavaocima. +Godine 1976, Hayek je predložio alternativu državnom monopolu na kreiranje valuta: konkurenciju između valuta. U svojoj knjizi, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Denacionalizacija novca](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), zamislio je monetarno tržište bez državnog monopola u kojem bi postojale različite privatne valute. Kreiranje i upravljanje različitim valutama od strane privatnih entiteta omogućilo bi pojedincima da izaberu najstabilniju i najpouzdaniju valutu, čime bi se podstakla konkurencija i disciplina među izdavaocima. ![image](assets/sr-Latn/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/sv.md b/courses/phi101/sv.md index eb1a8983475..974cb36766e 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/sv.md +++ b/courses/phi101/sv.md @@ -26,6 +26,8 @@ Från antiken genom upplysningstiden steg friheten när samhällen omfamnade tol :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Introduktion till kursen + Välkommen till PHI101! @@ -79,11 +81,13 @@ Slutligen kommer detta avsnitt att undersöka hur välfärdsstaten gradvis fick :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Varför studera frihetens historia? + Varför titulera den här kursen: Frihetens historia? För att vi behöver förstå sambandet mellan idéer och händelser för att kunna bedöma vår tid mer effektivt och agera med omdöme. Det är i det förflutna som vi hittar Elements för en bättre förståelse av vad frihet är och skälen till varför vi måste värna om den. -> När det förflutna inte längre lyser upp framtiden vandrar anden i mörker (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracy in America_). +> När det förflutna inte längre lyser upp framtiden vandrar anden i mörker (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracy in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/sv/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +163,7 @@ Den andra filosofin återfinns hos författare som Rousseau, Robespierre eller K ![image](assets/sv/007.webp) -> "Den som vågar ta på sig uppgiften att bilda ett folk", säger Rousseau, "måste känna sig kapabel att så att säga förändra den mänskliga naturen, att förvandla varje individ, som i sig själv är en perfekt och ensam helhet, till en del av en större helhet från vilken denna individ på sätt och vis får sitt liv och sin varelse." (_Samhällskontraktet_) +> "Den som vågar ta på sig uppgiften att bilda ett folk", säger Rousseau, "måste känna sig kapabel att så att säga förändra den mänskliga naturen, att förvandla varje individ, som i sig själv är en perfekt och ensam helhet, till en del av en större helhet från vilken denna individ på sätt och vis får sitt liv och sin varelse." (_[Samhällskontraktet](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Ur detta perspektiv är det lagstiftarens uppgift att organisera, modifiera eller till och med avskaffa äganderätten om det anses nödvändigt. För Rousseau är egendomen inte naturlig utan konventionell, precis som samhället självt. Robespierre slår i sin tur fast principen att "egendom är varje medborgares rätt att åtnjuta och förfoga över den del av varorna som lagen garanterar honom" Det finns ingen naturlig rätt till egendom; det finns bara ett obestämt antal möjliga och villkorliga arrangemang. @@ -171,6 +175,8 @@ Ur detta perspektiv är det lagstiftarens uppgift att organisera, modifiera elle :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Myten om den providentiella lagstiftaren + När man slår upp läroböckerna, konstaterade Bastiat, får man veta att mänskligheten skulle vara dömd till intet utan maktens ingripande: @@ -253,6 +259,8 @@ Några dagar innan han dog i Rom 1850 anförtrodde sig Bastiat åt sin vän Pros :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Historien skriven av segrarna + Det är känt att segrarna skriver historien. Uppmärksamheten riktas ofta mot erövringen av makt, mot makthavarnas liv och mot de konflikter som står i motsättning till dem som vill ta deras plats. @@ -316,6 +324,8 @@ Denna tes återfinns också i ett monumentalt verk från 1983: _Law and Revoluti :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Den socialistiska historiesynen + Men det finns ett annat perspektiv på historien. Det har varit ganska framgångsrikt och har länge haft stöd av västerländska intellektuella och representanter från det globala syd. Det är den socialistiska och marxistiska historiesynen. ![image](assets/sv/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +354,7 @@ Denna analys återspeglar en missuppfattning av mervärdet och det ekonomiska li ### Den industriella revolutionen i fråga -I själva verket förvränger den marxistiska analysen den industriella revolutionens historiska verklighet. Ludwig von Mises klargjorde denna fråga i sin ekonomiska avhandling [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (se särskilt kapitlet med titeln [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) samt i en serie föreläsningar som publicerades under titeln: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Läsvärt är också The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [här](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) och [här](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +I själva verket förvränger den marxistiska analysen den industriella revolutionens historiska verklighet. Ludwig von Mises klargjorde denna fråga i sin ekonomiska avhandling [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (se särskilt kapitlet med titeln [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) samt i en serie föreläsningar som publicerades under titeln: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Läsvärt är också The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [här](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) och [här](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/sv/014.webp) @@ -414,8 +424,10 @@ Sammanfattningsvis kan sägas att Europas ekonomiska och kulturella uppsving int :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Statsmakt kontra social makt + -I det sista kapitlet i _Anatomy of the State_ (översatt till franska som _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, av Résurgence editions) föreslår Murray Rothbard en historieteori. Detta mycket korta kapitel har rubriken "History: En kapplöpning mellan statsmakt och social makt" Enligt Rothbard kan historien förstås som en evig konflikt mellan två grundläggande principer: +I det sista kapitlet i _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (översatt till franska som _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, av Résurgence editions) föreslår Murray Rothbard en historieteori. Detta mycket korta kapitel har rubriken "History: En kapplöpning mellan statsmakt och social makt" Enligt Rothbard kan historien förstås som en evig konflikt mellan två grundläggande principer: ![image](assets/sv/017.webp) @@ -472,7 +484,7 @@ Mellan 1600- och 1800-talet fanns det i många västländer perioder av accelere > Under detta århundrade står mänskligheten återigen inför statens våldsamma styre; staten som nu är beväpnad med människans kreativa kraft, konfiskerad och förvrängd för sina syften. -Vad är ett fritt samhälle, trots allt? Det är ett samhälle utan monopol. I sitt verk om politisk filosofi, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), svarar Rothbard: "Ett samhälle där det inte finns någon laglig möjlighet till tvångsaggression mot någon individs person eller egendom." Det är därför som den politiska filosofin, som måste definiera principerna för ett rättvist samhälle, enligt honom kokar ner till en enda fråga: "Vem äger legitimt vad?" +Vad är ett fritt samhälle, trots allt? Det är ett samhälle utan monopol. I sitt verk om politisk filosofi, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), svarar Rothbard: "Ett samhälle där det inte finns någon laglig möjlighet till tvångsaggression mot någon individs person eller egendom." Det är därför som den politiska filosofin, som måste definiera principerna för ett rättvist samhälle, enligt honom kokar ner till en enda fråga: "Vem äger legitimt vad?" ![image](assets/sv/019.webp) @@ -500,6 +512,8 @@ Och han tillägger: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Den atenska demokratins arv + Erfarenheterna av den atenska demokratin har lämnat ett bestående avtryck i det politiska tänkandets historia och fortsätter att inspirera till ideal om demokrati och medborgardeltagande i dagens värld. @@ -640,6 +654,8 @@ De enda medel vi har för att närma oss sanningen är kritik och diskussion. Fr :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Ett kosmopolitiskt rike + Det romerska riket var en enorm, kosmopolitisk enhet. När det var som störst, omkring år 117 e.Kr., var det en enorm multietnisk och flerspråkig stat: @@ -794,6 +810,8 @@ Cicero hävdade att lagen inte kan reduceras till enbart de lagar som den lagsti :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Nedgång och kollaps + Varför gick Rom tillbaka och föll till slut? Många vill gärna tro att romarriket kollapsade plötsligt, under påverkan av barbariska invasioner. Orsakerna till romarrikets kollaps går dock att finna långt tidigare, i imperialism och ekonomisk och monetär dirigism. @@ -906,6 +924,8 @@ Och han tillägger: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Den individuella frihetens kristna rötter + Det kristna frihetsbegreppet utvecklades i den medeltida teologin, från Sankt Augustinus på 400-talet till Sankt Thomas av Aquino på 1200-talet. Vad är detta för idé? @@ -983,6 +1003,8 @@ Enligt Saint Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Förnuftets självständighet + Under medeltiden tävlade förnuft och tro om att få tillgång till sanningen. Efter Abélard och Albert den store valde Thomas av Aquino på 1200-talet att försvara förnuftets självständighet i förhållande till tron. @@ -1044,6 +1066,8 @@ Från och med då skulle den religiösa rationalismen definitivt segra över mys :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Det teologisk-politiska systemet + Under medeltiden ärvde kyrkan och de kristna monarkierna en politisk modell från romarriket, det s.k. teologisk-politiska systemet - ett system där makten betraktas som helig, vilket innebär att den politiska ledaren också är en religiös ledare. @@ -1102,6 +1126,8 @@ Kyrkans teokratiska frestelse kolliderar också med teorin om "gudomlig rätt" O :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Människan skapad till Guds avbild + Enligt antikens tankevärld var människan underordnad ett gudomligt kosmos, det vill säga ett perfekt universum som hon bara var en del av. Monoteismen, å andra sidan, hävdar människans oändligt överlägsna värde över naturen, i den mån människan är skapad till Guds avbild. Denna avgörande punkt är ursprunget till en sann etisk revolution. Bibeln bekräftar varje människas heliga och oändliga värde. @@ -1158,6 +1184,8 @@ Idén om mänskligheten utvecklas. Man började faktiskt anse att det bara finns :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kristendomen och den fria ekonomin + Vi har sett att kristendomen ålägger människor en moralisk plikt att arbeta för att förbättra världen. Gud vill att människan ska vara lycklig, men vill inte uppnå sitt goda i hennes ställe. Det är därför upp till den kristne att bekämpa det moraliskt onda, att älska sin nästa, att hjälpa offren, kort sagt att arbeta för en mer rättvis och mänsklig värld. Är kapitalismen, det vill säga den fria ekonomin som bygger på privat egendom och avtalsfrihet, förenlig med den kristna plikten? @@ -1249,6 +1277,8 @@ Om två olika valutor gynnas av ett lagligt betalningsmedel kommer aktörerna de :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Religionskrigen och upplysningstiden + Från renässansen skulle Europa härjas av religionskrig. Tolerans blev därför en av upplysningstidens stora strider. @@ -1307,7 +1337,7 @@ I det _Tionde brevet_, "Om handel", beskriver Voltaire det franska tänkesättet ### Sanning kräver frihet -Men Frankrike saknade inte stora tänkare. Det är föga känt, men Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne, var först och främst en ledande tänkare innan hon blev generalcontroller för finanserna under Ludvig XVI. Han var författare till en mästerlig avhandling om politisk ekonomi, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), som föregick Adam Smiths _The Wealth of Nations_ (1776). +Men Frankrike saknade inte stora tänkare. Det är föga känt, men Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de Laulne, var först och främst en ledande tänkare innan hon blev generalcontroller för finanserna under Ludvig XVI. Han var författare till en mästerlig avhandling om politisk ekonomi, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), som föregick Adam Smiths _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776). ![image](assets/sv/052.webp) @@ -1336,6 +1366,8 @@ Att vara tolerant betyder med andra ord inte att man är fientlig mot religion. :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Den ekonomiska liberalismens ursprung + Ekonomisk liberalism förknippas ofta med en anglosaxisk tradition som härstammar från Adam Smith. Den ställs i motsats till "politisk liberalism", som sägs ha sitt ursprung i den kontinentala upplysningen, särskilt i Frankrike. Denna uppfattning är felaktig. @@ -1433,6 +1465,8 @@ Kort sagt, om alla fritt kan driva sina privata intressen med respekt för natur :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tre händelser som förändrade historien + 1776 är ett år som ofta går obemärkt förbi i historieböckerna. Men i tre länder - Frankrike, Skottland och Nordamerika - kommer flera händelser att lämna outplånliga spår i frihetens historia. @@ -1493,7 +1527,7 @@ Det är också en filosofisk avhandling eftersom den visar hur fri och frivillig ### Ett manifest för frihet i Amerika -År 1776 publicerade engelsmannen Thomas Paine en pamflett i Amerika med titeln _Common Sense_, där han kritiserade den engelska monarkin och förespråkade de amerikanska kolonisternas självständighet. +År 1776 publicerade engelsmannen Thomas Paine en pamflett i Amerika med titeln _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_, där han kritiserade den engelska monarkin och förespråkade de amerikanska kolonisternas självständighet. ![image](assets/sv/059.webp) @@ -1581,6 +1615,8 @@ Begreppet spontan ordning blev en central tanke hos Friedrich Hayek, som erkänd :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekularisering och det moderna samhället + Den stora nyheten i denna moderna period i västvärldens historia är framväxten av ett samhälle som organiserar sig utanför ett religiöst beroende. Detta innebär inte att den religiösa tron försvinner eller att Gud dör. Men Gud blir en privat angelägenhet, som inte längre blandas med politiska angelägenheter. Religionen försvinner inte, men dess vägledande roll detroniseras. Den blir ett system av individuella trosföreställningar. @@ -1706,7 +1742,7 @@ I Amerika fanns det ingen ekonomisk dirigism och inte heller någon monetär ban Med Rousseau och Robespierre försökte fransmännen tro att nationen eller den allmänna viljan hade obegränsad makt och rättfärdigade alla handlingar. Av det faktum att folket styrde drog man slutsatsen att det hade alla rättigheter. Det fanns en tydlig motsägelse mellan revolutionens stora principer och de medel som användes för att få dem att triumfera. -Detta är för övrigt innebörden av Friedrich Hayeks anmärkning i hans bok _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Detta är för övrigt innebörden av Friedrich Hayeks anmärkning i hans bok _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Den avgörande faktor som gjorde revolutionens ansträngningar för att främja individens frihet förgäves var att den skapade en illusion om att alla försiktighetsåtgärder mot missbruk av makten hade blivit onödiga i och med att all makt hade överlämnats till folket. @@ -1724,6 +1760,8 @@ Detta är för övrigt innebörden av Friedrich Hayeks anmärkning i hans bok _T :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antik kontra modern frihet + Enligt Benjamin Constant kan frihet i moderna samhällen inte längre förstås på samma sätt som i antika kulturer, som ett direkt deltagande i stadens angelägenheter. @@ -1737,7 +1775,7 @@ Enligt Benjamin Constant kan frihet i moderna samhällen inte längre förstås Under antiken var individerna suveräna i offentliga angelägenheter men förslavade i alla sina privata relationer. Användningen av politiska rättigheter kompenserade för uppoffringen av individuell frihet: rätten att direkt utöva olika aspekter av suveränitet, att överlägga på det offentliga torget, att rösta om lagar, att uttala domar och att utvärdera och döma magistrater. Det är en politisk och kollektiv frihet: -> Antikens frihet bestod i ett aktivt och ständigt deltagande i den kollektiva makten. Vår frihet, å andra sidan, måste bestå av det fredliga åtnjutandet av privat oberoende; därav följer att vi måste vara mycket mer fästa vid vårt oberoende än de gamla. (_Om de gamlas frihet jämfört med de modernas_ (1819)) +> Antikens frihet bestod i ett aktivt och ständigt deltagande i den kollektiva makten. Vår frihet, å andra sidan, måste bestå av det fredliga åtnjutandet av privat oberoende; därav följer att vi måste vara mycket mer fästa vid vårt oberoende än de gamla. (_[Om de gamlas frihet jämfört med de modernas](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/sv/071.webp) @@ -1748,7 +1786,7 @@ Den moderna friheten omfattar medborgerliga friheter, som inkluderar ekonomisk f Denna definition av frihet återfinns hos John Stuart Mill: -> Den enda frihet som förtjänar namnet är den att sträva efter vårt goda på vårt sätt, så länge vi inte försöker beröva andra deras goda eller hindra dem i deras strävan att uppnå det. (...) Mänskligheten vinner mer på att låta varje människa leva som hon vill än på att tvinga henne att leva som andra anser vara bra. (_Om friheten_, 1859) +> Den enda frihet som förtjänar namnet är den att sträva efter vårt goda på vårt sätt, så länge vi inte försöker beröva andra deras goda eller hindra dem i deras strävan att uppnå det. (...) Mänskligheten vinner mer på att låta varje människa leva som hon vill än på att tvinga henne att leva som andra anser vara bra. (_[Om friheten](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/sv/072.webp) @@ -1798,6 +1836,8 @@ I ett fritt samhälle är det med andra ord nödvändigt att upprätta en strikt :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville och den demokratiska individualismen + Alexis de Tocqueville var en skarp iakttagare av demokratin och en kritiker av den demokratiska individualismen. @@ -1909,6 +1949,8 @@ Ta en titt på jordklotet. Vilka är de lyckligaste, mest moraliska och fredliga :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 1800-talets kritik + Det var under 1800-talet som kritiken av kapitalismen, särskilt den marxistiska kritiken, växte fram. @@ -1955,6 +1997,8 @@ Den politiska revolutionen är därför en illusion, enligt honom, så länge de :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Den österrikiska skolans svar + Den österrikiska ekonomiska skolan, som grundades av Carl Menger i slutet av 1800-talet, motsatte sig redan från början Karl Marx teorier. @@ -2038,7 +2082,7 @@ Marxisterna anser att socialismen, ett ekonomiskt system där produktionsmedlen ![image](assets/sv/085.webp) -Redan 1922 visade Ludwig von Mises i sin bok _Socialism_ att socialismen skulle leda till omfattande bristsituationer, eftersom centralplanerarna inte skulle kunna göra korrekta ekonomiska beräkningar utan det prissystem som marknaden tillhandahåller. +Redan 1922 visade Ludwig von Mises i sin bok _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ att socialismen skulle leda till omfattande bristsituationer, eftersom centralplanerarna inte skulle kunna göra korrekta ekonomiska beräkningar utan det prissystem som marknaden tillhandahåller. ## Vägen till underkastelse @@ -2048,8 +2092,10 @@ Redan 1922 visade Ludwig von Mises i sin bok _Socialism_ att socialismen skulle :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### Hayeks varning för kollektivism -Hayek oroades av den ökande statliga interventionismen i ekonomierna i de västerländska demokratierna och skrev _The Road to Serfdom_ som en filosofisk kritik av kollektivism, oavsett om den kom från höger eller vänster. Boken gavs ut i flera miljoner exemplar tack vare _Reader's Digest_ och har i hög grad bidragit till Hayeks berömmelse i USA. + +Hayek oroades av den ökande statliga interventionismen i ekonomierna i de västerländska demokratierna och skrev _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ som en filosofisk kritik av kollektivism, oavsett om den kom från höger eller vänster. Boken gavs ut i flera miljoner exemplar tack vare _Reader's Digest_ och har i hög grad bidragit till Hayeks berömmelse i USA. ![image](assets/sv/086.webp) @@ -2111,6 +2157,8 @@ Avslutningsvis uppmanar Hayek sina samtida att vända ryggen åt "galenskapen" o :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Den keynesianska revolutionen + Kapitalismen anklagas ofta för att vara källan till uppmaningen: "Vi måste alltid producera mer", eller formeln "Konsumtion är bra för tillväxten" Dessa idéer härstammar dock inte från den traditionella kapitalismen utan från keynesianismen, som har dominerat den ekonomiska vetenskapen och den politiska klassen sedan 1930-talet. @@ -2121,7 +2169,7 @@ Kapitalismen anklagas ofta för att vara källan till uppmaningen: "Vi måste al ### Analysen av 1929 års kris -John Maynard Keynes bok _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_ publicerades 1936 och svepte med sig allt i sin väg. Han ifrågasatte orsakerna till den stora depressionen och hur man skulle ta sig ur den och beskrev ett nytt ekonomiskt paradigm som skulle omvända generationer av ekonomer och politiker. +John Maynard Keynes bok _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_ publicerades 1936 och svepte med sig allt i sin väg. Han ifrågasatte orsakerna till den stora depressionen och hur man skulle ta sig ur den och beskrev ett nytt ekonomiskt paradigm som skulle omvända generationer av ekonomer och politiker. ![image](assets/sv/089.webp) @@ -2183,7 +2231,7 @@ Från och med 1958 fördes en politik för att rätta till den franska ekonomin, ![image](assets/sv/094.webp) -I _The Monetary Sin of the West_, från 1971, skriver Rueff: +I _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, från 1971, skriver Rueff: > Det är genom budgetunderskottet som människor förlorar sin frihet. @@ -2206,6 +2254,8 @@ Ingen religion har spridit sig över världen så snabbt som sysselsättningsrel :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Pengar och civilisation + Pengar är ett verktyg som har gjort det möjligt för människor att gå bortom byteshandel, spara och samordna i stor skala genom marknaden. Det har möjliggjort specialisering av arbetskraft, komparativa fördelar, vinster från handel och ekonomiska beräkningar. Utan pengar skulle det inte finnas någon modern civilisation. @@ -2268,7 +2318,7 @@ I februari 1965 föreslog general de Gaulle under en TV-sänd presskonferens, di ### En monetär marknad utan statligt monopol är möjlig -År 1976 föreslog Hayek ett alternativ till statens monopol på att skapa valutor: konkurrens mellan valutor. I sin bok _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_) föreställde han sig en monetär marknad utan statligt monopol där flera privata valutor skulle samexistera. Genom att privata aktörer skapar och förvaltar olika valutor skulle enskilda personer kunna välja den mest stabila och tillförlitliga valutan, vilket skulle uppmuntra till konkurrens och disciplin bland utgivarna. +År 1976 föreslog Hayek ett alternativ till statens monopol på att skapa valutor: konkurrens mellan valutor. I sin bok _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) föreställde han sig en monetär marknad utan statligt monopol där flera privata valutor skulle samexistera. Genom att privata aktörer skapar och förvaltar olika valutor skulle enskilda personer kunna välja den mest stabila och tillförlitliga valutan, vilket skulle uppmuntra till konkurrens och disciplin bland utgivarna. ![image](assets/sv/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/sw.md b/courses/phi101/sw.md index ebcbeb7a6bb..80c1fa269d6 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/sw.md +++ b/courses/phi101/sw.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Kutoka Enzi za Kale kupitia Enzi ya Mwangaza, uhuru ulipanda juu kadiri jamii zi :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Utangulizi wa Kozi + Karibu kwenye PH201! Kozi hii inakualika kuchunguza mageuzi ya uhuru katika historia kwa kuchanganua shule kuu za mawazo ambazo zimeiunda. Utagundua jinsi dhana ya uhuru imejengwa kwa karne nyingi, ama kwa kupinga au kushirikiana na mamlaka, kupitia safari ya kihistoria kutoka kwa Antiquity hadi mijadala ya kisasa. @@ -56,9 +58,11 @@ Je, uko tayari kuanza safari hii ya kipekee ya kifalsafa katika harakati za kuta :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Kwa Nini Kusoma Historia ya Uhuru? + Kwa nini jina la kozi hii: historia ya uhuru? Kwa sababu tunahitaji kuelewa uhusiano kati ya mawazo na matukio, ili kuhukumu vyema zama zetu na kutenda kwa utambuzi. Ni katika siku za nyuma ambapo tunapata Elements kwa ufahamu bora wa uhuru ni nini na sababu kwa nini ni lazima tuuthamini. -> Wakati wakati uliopita hauangazii tena siku zijazo, roho hutembea gizani (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracy in America_.) +> Wakati wakati uliopita hauangazii tena siku zijazo, roho hutembea gizani (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracy in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/sw/001.webp) Wakati huo huo, Auguste Comte alisema: "Mtu hajui sayansi kikamilifu mpaka ajue historia yake." Ukweli huu unaweza kutumika kwa wazo la uhuru. @@ -112,7 +116,7 @@ Falsafa ya pili inapatikana miongoni mwa waandishi kama Rousseau, Robespierre, a ![image](assets/sw/007.webp) -> "Yeyote anayethubutu kuanzisha watu," asema Rousseau, "lazima ajisikie kuwa na uwezo wa kubadilisha, kwa kusema, asili ya kibinadamu, ya kubadilisha kila mtu ambaye, peke yake, ni mkamilifu na wa upweke, kuwa sehemu ya jumla kubwa zaidi ambayo mtu huyu anapokea, kwa namna fulani, maisha yake na kuwa." (_Mkataba wa Kijamii_) +> "Yeyote anayethubutu kuanzisha watu," asema Rousseau, "lazima ajisikie kuwa na uwezo wa kubadilisha, kwa kusema, asili ya kibinadamu, ya kubadilisha kila mtu ambaye, peke yake, ni mkamilifu na wa upweke, kuwa sehemu ya jumla kubwa zaidi ambayo mtu huyu anapokea, kwa namna fulani, maisha yake na kuwa." (_[Mkataba wa Kijamii](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Kwa mtazamo huu, dhamira ya mbunge ni kupanga, kurekebisha, hata kufuta mali ikiwa ataona ni nzuri. Kwa Rousseau, mali si ya asili lakini ya kawaida, kama jamii yenyewe. Kwa upande wake, Robespierre anaweka kanuni kwamba "Mali ni haki ya kila raia kufurahia na kutoa sehemu ya bidhaa alizohakikishiwa na sheria." Hakuna haki ya asili ya kumiliki mali; kuna idadi isiyojulikana tu ya mipangilio inayowezekana na ya hatari. ## Frédéric Bastiat: uzalishaji dhidi ya uharibifu @@ -121,6 +125,8 @@ Kwa mtazamo huu, dhamira ya mbunge ni kupanga, kurekebisha, hata kufuta mali iki :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Hekaya ya Mbunge wa Majaliwa + Mtu anapofungua vitabu vya kiada, Bastiat alibainisha, mtu hujifunza kwamba ubinadamu ungeangamizwa bila ya kuingiliwa kwa mamlaka: > "Inatosha kufungua, karibu kwa nasibu, kitabu cha falsafa, siasa, au historia kuona jinsi wazo hili lilivyokita mizizi katika nchi yetu, lililozaliwa na masomo ya kitambo na mama wa Ujamaa, kwamba ubinadamu ni jambo lisilo la kawaida linalopokea kutoka kwa maisha ya nguvu, shirika, maadili na utajiri; - au mbaya zaidi, kwamba ubinadamu wenyewe unaelekea kwenye uharibifu wake na unasimamishwa tu kwenye mteremko huu wa siri wa Baraza." ([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -178,6 +184,8 @@ Siku chache kabla ya kifo chake huko Roma mnamo 1850, Bastiat alimwambia rafiki :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Historia Iliyoandikwa na Washindi + Inajulikana, historia imeandikwa na washindi. Tahadhari mara nyingi huelekezwa kwenye ushindi wa madaraka, maisha ya viongozi walio madarakani, na migogoro inayowapinga kwa wale wanaotaka kuchukua nafasi zao. ![image](assets/sw/010.webp) @@ -222,6 +230,8 @@ Tasnifu hii pia inapatikana katika kazi kubwa iliyoanzishwa mwaka wa 1983: _Law :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Mtazamo wa Kisoshalisti wa Historia + Mtazamo mwingine juu ya historia upo, hata hivyo. Imekuwa na mafanikio makubwa na kwa muda mrefu ilifurahia uungwaji mkono wa wasomi wa Magharibi na wawakilishi kutoka Global South. Huu ni mtazamo wa kisoshalisti na umaksi wa historia. ![image](assets/sw/013.webp) @@ -242,7 +252,7 @@ Uchambuzi huu unaonyesha kutokuelewana kwa thamani ya ziada na hali ya ushirika ### Mapinduzi ya Viwanda katika Swali -Kwa hakika, uchambuzi wa Umaksi unapotosha ukweli wa kihistoria wa Mapinduzi ya Viwanda. Ludwig von Mises alifafanua suala hili katika mkataba wake wa uchumi [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (tazama hasa sura yenye kichwa [Tafsiri Maarufu ya Mapinduzi ya Viwanda](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm kama ilivyochapishwa katika mfululizo wa hotuba) [_Sera ya Kiuchumi: Mawazo ya Leo na Kesho_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Inafaa pia kusoma, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [hapa](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) na [hapa](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MACm) +Kwa hakika, uchambuzi wa Umaksi unapotosha ukweli wa kihistoria wa Mapinduzi ya Viwanda. Ludwig von Mises alifafanua suala hili katika mkataba wake wa uchumi [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (tazama hasa sura yenye kichwa [Tafsiri Maarufu ya Mapinduzi ya Viwanda](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm kama ilivyochapishwa katika mfululizo wa hotuba) [_Sera ya Kiuchumi: Mawazo ya Leo na Kesho_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Inafaa pia kusoma, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [hapa](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) na [hapa](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MACm) ![image](assets/sw/014.webp) @@ -291,7 +301,9 @@ Kwa kuhitimisha sura hii, kupaa kwa Ulaya kiuchumi na kiutamaduni hakukutokana n :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Katika sura ya mwisho ya _Anatomy of the State_ (iliyotafsiriwa kwa Kifaransa kama _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, na matoleo ya Résurgence), Murray Rothbard anapendekeza nadharia ya historia. Sura hii fupi sana inaitwa: Historia, mbio kati ya nguvu ya serikali na nguvu ya kijamii. Kulingana na Rothbard, historia inaweza kueleweka kama mzozo wa kudumu kati ya kanuni mbili za kimsingi: +### Nguvu ya Serikali dhidi ya Nguvu ya Kijamii + +Katika sura ya mwisho ya _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (iliyotafsiriwa kwa Kifaransa kama _L'anatomie de l'Etat_, na matoleo ya Résurgence), Murray Rothbard anapendekeza nadharia ya historia. Sura hii fupi sana inaitwa: Historia, mbio kati ya nguvu ya serikali na nguvu ya kijamii. Kulingana na Rothbard, historia inaweza kueleweka kama mzozo wa kudumu kati ya kanuni mbili za kimsingi: ![image](assets/sw/017.webp) @@ -331,7 +343,7 @@ Kulingana na Rothbard, historia sio mchakato wa mstari, lakini badala yake ni mg Kuanzia karne ya 17 hadi karne ya 19, katika nchi nyingi za Magharibi, kulikuwa na vipindi vya kuongeza kasi ya nguvu ya kijamii na ongezeko linalolingana la uhuru, amani, na ustawi wa mali. Lakini Rothbard anatukumbusha kwamba karne ya 20 ilitiwa alama na kuibuka tena kwa mamlaka ya Serikali, kukiwa na matokeo mabaya: ongezeko la utumwa, vita, na uharibifu: > Wakati wa karne hii, jamii ya kibinadamu inakabili, kwa mara nyingine tena, utawala wa kikatili wa Serikali; Serikali ambayo sasa imejizatiti kwa uwezo wa ubunifu wa mwanadamu, iliyonyakuliwa na kupotoshwa kwa malengo yake yenyewe. -> Je! Jamii huru ni nini?? Ni jamii isiyo na ukiritimba. Katika kazi yake ya falsafa ya kisiasa, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard anajibu: "jamii ambayo hakuna uwezekano wa kisheria wa uchokozi wa kulazimisha dhidi ya mtu au mali ya mtu binafsi." Hii ndiyo sababu, kulingana na yeye, falsafa ya kisiasa, ambayo lazima ifafanue kanuni za jamii yenye haki, inajikita kwenye swali moja: "Nani anamiliki nini kihalali?" +> Je! Jamii huru ni nini?? Ni jamii isiyo na ukiritimba. Katika kazi yake ya falsafa ya kisiasa, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard anajibu: "jamii ambayo hakuna uwezekano wa kisheria wa uchokozi wa kulazimisha dhidi ya mtu au mali ya mtu binafsi." Hii ndiyo sababu, kulingana na yeye, falsafa ya kisiasa, ambayo lazima ifafanue kanuni za jamii yenye haki, inajikita kwenye swali moja: "Nani anamiliki nini kihalali?" > ![image](assets/sw/019.webp) Kwa Rothbard, utaratibu wa kijamii unaweza kutawala ikiwa ni zao la ujanibishaji wa taratibu za kimkataba kwa kubadilishana haki za umiliki wa mali kwa uhuru kwa kubinafsisha shughuli zote za kiuchumi na hata kazi kuu (benki kuu, mahakama) na kwa kutumia ushindani kati ya mashirika ya ulinzi. @@ -351,6 +363,8 @@ Na anaongeza: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Urithi wa Demokrasia ya Athene + Uzoefu wa demokrasia ya Athene umeacha alama ya kudumu katika historia ya fikra za kisiasa na unaendelea kuhamasisha maadili ya demokrasia na ushiriki wa raia katika ulimwengu wa leo. ![image](assets/sw/020.webp) @@ -449,6 +463,8 @@ Njia pekee tunayopaswa kukabiliana na ukweli ni ukosoaji na majadiliano. Kwa hiv :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Milki ya Kimataifa + Milki ya Kirumi ilikuwa shirika kubwa la ulimwengu. Katika kilele chake, karibu 117 BK, lilikuwa ni jimbo kubwa la makabila na lugha nyingi: @@ -556,6 +572,8 @@ Akidai kuwa sheria haiwezi kupunguzwa kuwa tu sheria zilizotungwa na bunge, Cice :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Kushuka na Kuanguka + Kwa nini Roma ilishuka na hatimaye kuanguka? Wengi wanapenda kufikiria kwamba Ufalme wa Kirumi ulianguka ghafla, chini ya athari za uvamizi wa washenzi. Hata hivyo, sababu za kuanguka kwa Dola ya Kirumi zinapatikana mapema zaidi, katika ubeberu na dirigisme ya kiuchumi na ya kifedha. @@ -633,6 +651,8 @@ Na anaongeza: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Mizizi ya Kikristo ya Uhuru wa Mtu Binafsi + Wazo la Kikristo la uhuru lilikuzwa katika teolojia ya enzi ya Mtakatifu Augustino katika karne ya 4, hadi kwa Mtakatifu Thomas Aquinas katika karne ya 13. Wazo hili ni nini? ![image](assets/sw/037.webp) @@ -685,6 +705,8 @@ Kulingana na Mtakatifu Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Kujitegemea kwa Akili + Katika Enzi za Kati, akili na imani hushindana kupata ukweli. Kufuatia Abélard na Albert Mkuu, Thomas Aquinas, katika karne ya 13, alichagua kutetea haki za akili na uhuru wake kuhusiana na imani. ![image](assets/sw/040.webp) @@ -729,6 +751,8 @@ Kuanzia hapo na kuendelea, urazini wa kidini ungeshinda kwa hakika juu ya fumbo. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Mfumo wa Kidini-Kisiasa + Katika Zama za Kati, Kanisa na monarchies za Kikristo zilirithi mfano wa kisiasa kutoka kwa Dola ya Kirumi, ambayo wanahistoria wanaiita mfumo wa kidini-kisiasa, kumaanisha mfumo ambapo nguvu ni takatifu, yaani, ambapo kiongozi wa kisiasa pia ni kiongozi wa kidini. Hii ndiyo sababu jamii za enzi za kati zina sifa ya umoja wa kisiasa-dini. Nguvu ya kisiasa inaweka msingi wake wa uhalali, mamlaka, na umoja wake kwenye imani ya Kikristo (au Mwislamu). Inajiona kuwa mlezi wa mafundisho ya kitamaduni na kidini na inawachukulia kama mapariha wale wanaotoka katika umoja huu. Katika muktadha huu, hata kama uvumilivu fulani ungeweza kukubaliwa kwa wale wanaojitenga na maono ya kawaida ya kitamaduni (kama vile Wayahudi), hakuna haki ya kuwepo kwa wingi ingeweza kutambuliwa kwao. Haikuwa hadi mwisho wa Enzi za Kati, pamoja na ushindi wa Amerika, kwamba tatizo la uhuru wa raia likawa muhimu kwa Kanisa na kuona kuibuka kwa falsafa ya kwanza ya sheria ambayo ilithibitisha na kulinda uhuru wa mtu binafsi, kuhalalisha wingi wa watu wengi, na kushutumu shuruti ya serikali. @@ -770,6 +794,8 @@ Majaribu ya kitheokrasi ya Kanisa pia yanapingana na nadharia ya "haki ya kimung :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Mwanadamu Aliyeumbwa kwa Mfano wa Mungu + Mawazo ya kale yalimweka mwanadamu chini ya ulimwengu wa kimungu, yaani, ulimwengu mkamilifu ambao alikuwa sehemu yake tu. Imani ya Mungu Mmoja, kwa upande mwingine, inasisitiza thamani ya juu zaidi ya mwanadamu juu ya maumbile, kadiri mwanadamu ameumbwa kwa mfano wa Mungu. Jambo hili muhimu liko kwenye chimbuko la mapinduzi ya kweli ya kimaadili. Biblia inathibitisha thamani takatifu na isiyo na kikomo ya kila mwanadamu. Hii ndiyo sababu maadili ya kibiblia yanabadilisha uhusiano wetu na uovu. Inaleta hisia kali na isiyo na kifani kwa mateso ya mwanadamu. Kwa hiyo inatutia moyo tuyafikirie kuwa maovu yasiyo ya kawaida na yasiyoweza kuvumilika ambayo ubinadamu hadi wakati huo ulikuwa umeweza kustahimilika kikamilifu, hasa maovu yaliyotendwa kwa wengine, kwa wanyonge, kwa wasio na hatia. @@ -810,6 +836,8 @@ Wazo la ubinadamu linaendelea. Ilikuja kuzingatiwa kwa ufanisi kwamba kuna ubina :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Ukristo na Uchumi Huria + Tumeona kwamba Ukristo unaweka wajibu wa kimaadili kwa watu kufanya kazi kuelekea uboreshaji wa ulimwengu. Mungu anataka mwanadamu awe na furaha lakini hataki kupata wema wake badala yake. Kwa hiyo ni juu ya Mkristo kupambana na uovu wa kimaadili, kumpenda jirani, kuwasaidia waathirika, kwa ufupi, kufanya kazi kwa ajili ya ulimwengu wa haki na utu. Je, ubepari, yaani, uchumi huria unaotegemea mali binafsi na uhuru wa mikataba, unaendana na wajibu wa Kikristo? Sehemu ya jibu liko katika ukweli kwamba ubepari ulianzia katika mazingira ya kidini, kabla ya Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti. Sehemu nyingine ya jibu ni kuzingatia ukweli kwamba ubepari ndio njia bora ya kuboresha hali ya kimaada na kimaadili ya watu binafsi. Uchumi huria pekee, unaozingatia haki za kumiliki mali na ushirikiano wa hiari, ndio unaweza kuwaondoa watu kutoka katika taabu kwa njia endelevu. @@ -879,6 +907,8 @@ Zaidi ya hayo, ikiwa sarafu mbili tofauti zitanufaika na zabuni halali, mawakala :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Vita vya Kidini na Mwangaza + Tangu Renaissance, Ulaya ingeharibiwa na vita vya kidini. Uvumilivu, kwa hiyo, ukawa mojawapo ya vita vikubwa vya Kutaalamika. ![image](assets/sw/050.webp) @@ -919,7 +949,7 @@ Katika _Barua ya Kumi_, "Juu ya Biashara", Voltaire anaelezea mawazo ya Wafarans ### Ukweli unahitaji Uhuru -Hata hivyo Ufaransa haikupungukiwa na akili kubwa. Inajulikana kidogo lakini Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne alikuwa wa kwanza kabisa mwanafikra mkuu kabla ya kuwa Mdhibiti Mkuu wa Fedha chini ya Louis XVI. Alikuwa mwandishi wa risala ya ustadi kuhusu uchumi wa kisiasa, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), iliyotangulia _The Wealth of Nations_ na Adam Smith (1776). +Hata hivyo Ufaransa haikupungukiwa na akili kubwa. Inajulikana kidogo lakini Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne alikuwa wa kwanza kabisa mwanafikra mkuu kabla ya kuwa Mdhibiti Mkuu wa Fedha chini ya Louis XVI. Alikuwa mwandishi wa risala ya ustadi kuhusu uchumi wa kisiasa, _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766), iliyotangulia _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ na Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/sw/052.webp) @@ -941,6 +971,8 @@ Kwa maneno mengine, kuwa mvumilivu haimaanishi kuwa na uadui na dini. Inamaanish :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Chimbuko la Uliberali wa Kiuchumi + Uliberali wa kiuchumi mara nyingi huhusishwa na mila ya Anglo-Saxon inayotokana na Adam Smith, ikilinganishwa na "liberalism ya kisiasa," ambayo inasemekana inatoka kwa Mwangaza wa bara, haswa nchini Ufaransa. Mtazamo huu sio sahihi. ![image](assets/sw/053.webp) @@ -1008,6 +1040,8 @@ Kwa ufupi, ikiwa kila mtu anaweza kufuata kwa hiari maslahi yake binafsi kwa hes :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Matukio Matatu Yaliyobadilisha Historia + 1776 ni mwaka ambao mara nyingi hauonekani katika vitabu vya kiada vya historia. Lakini katika nchi tatu, Ufaransa, Scotland, na Amerika Kaskazini, matukio kadhaa yataacha alama isiyofutika katika historia ya uhuru. ### Aibu ya Turgot @@ -1050,7 +1084,7 @@ Pia ni risala kuhusu falsafa kwa kuwa inaonyesha jinsi Exchange ya bure na ya hi ### Manifesto ya Uhuru katika Amerika -Mnamo 1776, Mwingereza aitwaye Thomas Paine alichapisha katika Amerika kijitabu kikali kilichokosoa ufalme wa Kiingereza na kutetea uhuru wa wakoloni wa Kiamerika: _Common Sense_. +Mnamo 1776, Mwingereza aitwaye Thomas Paine alichapisha katika Amerika kijitabu kikali kilichokosoa ufalme wa Kiingereza na kutetea uhuru wa wakoloni wa Kiamerika: _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/sw/059.webp) @@ -1115,6 +1149,8 @@ Wazo hili la utaratibu wa hiari lingekuwa wazo kuu katika kazi ya Friedrich Haye :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Kutenganisha Dini na Jamii ya Kisasa + Riwaya kubwa ya kipindi hiki cha kisasa katika historia ya Magharibi ni kuibuka kwa jamii inayojipanga nje ya utegemezi wa kidini. Hii haimaanishi kutoweka kwa imani ya kidini au kifo cha Mungu. Lakini Mungu anakuwa ni jambo la faragha, lisilochanganyika tena na mambo ya kisiasa. Hakuna kutoweka kwa dini ila ni kupinduliwa kwa jukumu lake la kuongoza. Inakuwa mfumo wa imani ya mtu binafsi. Kutengwa huku kwa ulimwengu wa Magharibi hakukutokea mara moja. Iliandaliwa na mawazo. Kama kawaida, falsafa iko mstari wa mbele katika mabadiliko makubwa ya kitamaduni. @@ -1200,7 +1236,7 @@ Huko Amerika, hakukuwa na dirigisme ya kiuchumi, au kufilisika kwa pesa kama ile Pamoja na Rousseau na Robespierre, Wafaransa walitaka kuamini kwamba Taifa au jenerali atakuwa na mamlaka isiyo na kikomo na kuhalalisha kila kitu. Kutokana na ukweli kwamba watu walitawala, ilihitimishwa kuwa walikuwa na haki zote. Kulikuwa na mkanganyiko wa dhahiri kati ya kanuni kuu za Mapinduzi na njia zilizotumika kuyafanya yashinde. -Zaidi ya hayo, hii ndiyo maana ya matamshi ya Friedrich Hayek katika kitabu chake _The Constitution of Liberty_: +Zaidi ya hayo, hii ndiyo maana ya matamshi ya Friedrich Hayek katika kitabu chake _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Jambo la kuamua ambalo lilibatilisha juhudi za Mapinduzi katika kuunga mkono uendelezaji wa uhuru wa mtu binafsi ni kwamba yalijenga dhana kwamba, kadiri mamlaka yote yalivyokabidhiwa kwa watu, tahadhari zote dhidi ya matumizi mabaya ya madaraka haya zimekuwa si za lazima. # Apogee na Kupungua: Kuanzia Karne ya 19 hadi 20 @@ -1213,6 +1249,8 @@ Zaidi ya hayo, hii ndiyo maana ya matamshi ya Friedrich Hayek katika kitabu chak :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Uhuru wa Kale dhidi ya Uhuru wa Kisasa + Kulingana na Benjamin Constant, uhuru, katika jamii zetu za kisasa, hauwezi tena kueleweka kwa namna ya jamii za Zamani kama ushiriki wa moja kwa moja katika mambo ya jiji. ![image](assets/sw/070.webp) @@ -1221,14 +1259,14 @@ Kulingana na Benjamin Constant, uhuru, katika jamii zetu za kisasa, hauwezi tena Katika nyakati za zamani, mtu huyo alikuwa huru katika mambo ya umma lakini alikuwa mtumwa katika uhusiano wao wote wa kibinafsi. Dhabihu ya uhuru wa mtu binafsi ililipwa na matumizi ya haki za kisiasa: haki ya kutekeleza moja kwa moja sehemu mbalimbali za uhuru, kufanya makusudi katika uwanja wa umma, kupiga kura juu ya sheria, kutangaza hukumu, kutathmini na kuhukumu mahakimu. Ni uhuru wa kisiasa na wa pamoja: -> Uhuru wa Wazee ulijumuisha ushiriki hai na wa mara kwa mara katika nguvu ya pamoja. Uhuru wetu, kwa upande mwingine, lazima uwe na furaha ya amani ya uhuru wa kibinafsi; inafuata kwamba lazima tushikamane zaidi kuliko watu wa zamani kwa uhuru wetu wa kibinafsi. (_Juu ya Uhuru wa Watu wa Kale Ikilinganishwa na ile ya Watu wa Kisasa_ (1819)) +> Uhuru wa Wazee ulijumuisha ushiriki hai na wa mara kwa mara katika nguvu ya pamoja. Uhuru wetu, kwa upande mwingine, lazima uwe na furaha ya amani ya uhuru wa kibinafsi; inafuata kwamba lazima tushikamane zaidi kuliko watu wa zamani kwa uhuru wetu wa kibinafsi. (_[Juu ya Uhuru wa Watu wa Kale Ikilinganishwa na ile ya Watu wa Kisasa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/sw/071.webp) Uhuru wa kisasa ni uhuru wa kiraia, unaojumuisha uhuru wa kiuchumi na unategemea haki ya faragha. Ni haki ya kutofanyiwa jeuri yoyote, haki ya kujieleza, kukusanyika, kutembea, kuabudu, na viwanda. Hakuna uhuru bila uwezekano wa kuchagua mtindo wa maisha na maadili, kwa hivyo hakuna uhuru bila uwezekano wa kujiondoa kutoka kwa jamii na kwa hivyo hakuna uhuru bila kizuizi cha Serikali kuruhusu uwepo wa nafasi hii ya kibinafsi. Ni uhuru unaolingana na kile ambacho Wamarekani wanakiita haki za kiraia. Ufafanuzi huu wa uhuru unapatikana katika John Stuart Mill: -> Uhuru pekee unaostahili jina hilo, ni ule wa kutafuta manufaa yetu wenyewe kwa njia yetu wenyewe, mradi tu tusijaribu kuwanyima wengine vyao au kuzuia jitihada zao za kuupata. (...) Ubinadamu hunufaika zaidi kwa kumwacha kila mtu aishi jinsi anavyoona inafaa kuliko kumshurutisha kuishi kama inavyoonekana kuwa nzuri kwa wengine. (_Kwenye Uhuru_, 1859) +> Uhuru pekee unaostahili jina hilo, ni ule wa kutafuta manufaa yetu wenyewe kwa njia yetu wenyewe, mradi tu tusijaribu kuwanyima wengine vyao au kuzuia jitihada zao za kuupata. (...) Ubinadamu hunufaika zaidi kwa kumwacha kila mtu aishi jinsi anavyoona inafaa kuliko kumshurutisha kuishi kama inavyoonekana kuwa nzuri kwa wengine. (_[Kwenye Uhuru](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/sw/072.webp) @@ -1264,6 +1302,8 @@ Kwa maneno mengine, katika jamii huru, ni muhimu kuweka mpaka mkali kati ya nyan :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville na Ubinafsi wa Kidemokrasia + Alexis de Tocqueville alikuwa mfuatiliaji makini wa demokrasia na mkosoaji wa ubinafsi wa kidemokrasia. ![image](assets/sw/074.webp) @@ -1339,6 +1379,8 @@ Angalia ulimwengu. Ni watu gani wenye furaha zaidi, wenye maadili mema zaidi na :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Ukosoaji wa Karne ya 19 + Ilikuwa ni wakati wa karne ya 19 ambapo ukosoaji wa ubepari, na haswa ukosoaji wa Kimarx, uliibuka. ![image](assets/sw/078.webp) @@ -1371,6 +1413,8 @@ Kwa hiyo mapinduzi ya kisiasa ni udanganyifu, kwa mujibu wake, maadamu hayaambat :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Mwitikio wa Shule ya Austria + Shule ya Uchumi ya Austria, iliyoanzishwa na Carl Menger mwishoni mwa karne ya 19, ilipinga nadharia za Karl Marx tangu mwanzo. ![image](assets/sw/081.webp) @@ -1429,7 +1473,7 @@ Wana-Marx wanaamini kwamba ujamaa, mfumo wa kiuchumi ambao njia za uzalishaji zi ![image](assets/sw/085.webp) -Mapema mwaka 1922, katika kitabu chake _Ujamaa,_ Ludwig von Mises alionyesha kwamba ujamaa ungesababisha uhaba mkubwa, kwani wapangaji wa kati hawataweza kufanya hesabu sahihi za kiuchumi bila mfumo wa bei unaotolewa na soko. +Mapema mwaka 1922, katika kitabu chake _[Ujamaa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises alionyesha kwamba ujamaa ungesababisha uhaba mkubwa, kwani wapangaji wa kati hawataweza kufanya hesabu sahihi za kiuchumi bila mfumo wa bei unaotolewa na soko. ## Barabara ya Serfdom @@ -1437,7 +1481,9 @@ Mapema mwaka 1922, katika kitabu chake _Ujamaa,_ Ludwig von Mises alionyesha kwa :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Akiwa ameshtushwa na kuongezeka kwa uingiliaji kati wa serikali katika uchumi wa demokrasia ya Magharibi, Hayek aliandika _The Road to Serfdom_ kama uhakiki wa kifalsafa wa umoja, iwe kutoka kulia au kushoto. Kitabu hiki kilichapishwa katika nakala milioni kadhaa, kutokana na _Reader’s Digest_, kimechangia pakubwa umaarufu wa Hayek nchini Marekani. +### Onyo la Hayek Dhidi ya Umoja + +Akiwa ameshtushwa na kuongezeka kwa uingiliaji kati wa serikali katika uchumi wa demokrasia ya Magharibi, Hayek aliandika _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ kama uhakiki wa kifalsafa wa umoja, iwe kutoka kulia au kushoto. Kitabu hiki kilichapishwa katika nakala milioni kadhaa, kutokana na _Reader’s Digest_, kimechangia pakubwa umaarufu wa Hayek nchini Marekani. ![image](assets/sw/086.webp) @@ -1480,13 +1526,15 @@ Kwa kumalizia, Hayek anatoa wito kwa watu wa wakati wake kuupa kisogo "wazimu" n :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Mapinduzi ya Kikenesia + Ubepari mara nyingi hushutumiwa kuwa chanzo cha amri: "lazima tuzalishe zaidi kila wakati," au ya fomula: "kuteketeza ni nzuri kwa ukuaji." Hata hivyo, mawazo haya hayatokani na ubepari wa kimapokeo bali unatokana na Ukenesia, ambao umetawala nyanja ya sayansi ya uchumi na tabaka la kisiasa tangu miaka ya 1930. ![image](assets/sw/088.webp) ### Uchambuzi wa Mgogoro wa 1929 -Kilichochapishwa mwaka wa 1936, kitabu cha John Maynard Keynes: _Nadharia ya Jumla ya Ajira, Maslahi, na Pesa_, kilifagia kila kitu katika njia yake. Akihoji sababu za Unyogovu Mkuu na njia za kutokea kutoka kwake, anaelezea dhana mpya ya kiuchumi, ambayo ingebadilisha vizazi vya wachumi na wanasiasa. +Kilichochapishwa mwaka wa 1936, kitabu cha John Maynard Keynes: _[Nadharia ya Jumla ya Ajira, Maslahi, na Pesa](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, kilifagia kila kitu katika njia yake. Akihoji sababu za Unyogovu Mkuu na njia za kutokea kutoka kwake, anaelezea dhana mpya ya kiuchumi, ambayo ingebadilisha vizazi vya wachumi na wanasiasa. ![image](assets/sw/089.webp) @@ -1530,7 +1578,7 @@ Kuanzia 1958, sera ya kurekebisha uchumi wa Ufaransa, iliyoongozwa na Jacques Ru ![image](assets/sw/094.webp) -Katika _The Monetary Sin of the West_, mwaka wa 1971, Rueff anaandika: +Katika _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_, mwaka wa 1971, Rueff anaandika: > Ni kwa ufinyu wa bajeti ambapo wanaume hupoteza uhuru wao. Anaongeza: "Mfumuko wa bei ni kutoa ruzuku ya matumizi ambayo hayazai chochote kwa pesa ambazo hazipo." Kulingana na yeye: "Mtu angefikiri, akiangalia mabadiliko ya mfumo wa fedha wa kimataifa, kwamba nchi za Magharibi zinatumia ushauri wa Lenin, kulingana na ambayo: Kuharibu utawala wa mbepari, inatosha kuharibu sarafu yake. @@ -1547,6 +1595,8 @@ Hakuna dini iliyoenea ulimwenguni kote haraka kama ile ya ajira. Ikisukumwa na k :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Pesa na Ustaarabu + Pesa ni chombo ambacho kimewaruhusu wanadamu kwenda zaidi ya kubadilishana fedha, kuweka akiba, na kuratibu kwa kiwango kikubwa kupitia soko. Imewezesha utaalam wa kazi, faida za kulinganisha, faida kutoka kwa biashara, hesabu ya kiuchumi. Bila pesa, hakuna ustaarabu wa kisasa. ### Dhahabu kama Kiwango cha Kimataifa @@ -1589,7 +1639,7 @@ Mnamo Februari 1965, wakati wa mkutano wa waandishi wa habari wa televisheni, Je > Dhahabu, ambayo haibadilishi asili yake, ambayo haina utaifa, ambayo inashikiliwa, milele na ulimwenguni kote, kama thamani isiyoweza kubadilika kulingana na ubora. ### Soko la fedha bila ukiritimba wa Serikali linawezekana -Mnamo 1976, Hayek alipendekeza njia mbadala ya ukiritimba wa serikali juu ya kuunda sarafu: ushindani kati ya sarafu. Katika kitabu chake, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), alifikiria soko la fedha bila ukiritimba wa Serikali ambapo sarafu kadhaa za kibinafsi zingekuwepo. Uundaji na usimamizi wa sarafu tofauti na mashirika ya kibinafsi kungeruhusu watu binafsi kuchagua sarafu thabiti na inayotegemewa, na hivyo kuhimiza ushindani na nidhamu kati ya watoaji. +Mnamo 1976, Hayek alipendekeza njia mbadala ya ukiritimba wa serikali juu ya kuunda sarafu: ushindani kati ya sarafu. Katika kitabu chake, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), alifikiria soko la fedha bila ukiritimba wa Serikali ambapo sarafu kadhaa za kibinafsi zingekuwepo. Uundaji na usimamizi wa sarafu tofauti na mashirika ya kibinafsi kungeruhusu watu binafsi kuchagua sarafu thabiti na inayotegemewa, na hivyo kuhimiza ushindani na nidhamu kati ya watoaji. ![image](assets/sw/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/th.md b/courses/phi101/th.md index 4178d70eec6..cfd396732a4 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/th.md +++ b/courses/phi101/th.md @@ -32,6 +32,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### บทนำสู่หลักสูตร + ยินดีต้อนรับสู่ PHI101! @@ -85,10 +87,12 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### ทำไมต้องศึกษาประวัติศาสตร์แห่งเสรีภาพ? + ทำไมตั้งชื่อหลักสูตรนี้ว่า: ประวัติศาสตร์แห่งเสรีภาพ? เพราะเราจำเป็นต้องเข้าใจความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างแนวคิดและเหตุการณ์เพื่อประเมินยุคสมัยของเราได้อย่างมีประสิทธิภาพมากขึ้นและดำเนินการด้วยความรอบคอบ ในอดีตเราพบองค์ประกอบสำหรับความเข้าใจที่ดีขึ้นว่าเสรีภาพคืออะไรและเหตุผลที่เราต้องหวงแหนมัน -> เมื่ออดีตไม่สามารถส่องสว่างอนาคตได้อีกต่อไป จิตวิญญาณก็เดินอยู่ในความมืด (อเล็กซิส เดอ ต๊อกเคอวิล - _ประชาธิปไตยในอเมริกา_) +> เมื่ออดีตไม่สามารถส่องสว่างอนาคตได้อีกต่อไป จิตวิญญาณก็เดินอยู่ในความมืด (อเล็กซิส เดอ ต๊อกเคอวิล - _[ประชาธิปไตยในอเมริกา](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_) ![image](assets/en/001.webp) @@ -164,7 +168,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/en/007.webp) -> "ผู้ใดที่กล้าจะริเริ่มการก่อตั้งประชาชน" รูโซกล่าว "ต้องรู้สึกว่าตนเองสามารถเปลี่ยนแปลงธรรมชาติของมนุษย์ได้ พูดง่ายๆ คือการเปลี่ยนแปลงแต่ละบุคคลที่โดยตัวเขาเองเป็นองค์รวมที่สมบูรณ์และโดดเดี่ยว ให้กลายเป็นส่วนหนึ่งขององค์รวมที่ยิ่งใหญ่กว่าซึ่งบุคคลนี้ได้รับชีวิตและการดำรงอยู่ของเขาในทางหนึ่ง" (_สัญญาประชาคม_) +> "ผู้ใดที่กล้าจะริเริ่มการก่อตั้งประชาชน" รูโซกล่าว "ต้องรู้สึกว่าตนเองสามารถเปลี่ยนแปลงธรรมชาติของมนุษย์ได้ พูดง่ายๆ คือการเปลี่ยนแปลงแต่ละบุคคลที่โดยตัวเขาเองเป็นองค์รวมที่สมบูรณ์และโดดเดี่ยว ให้กลายเป็นส่วนหนึ่งขององค์รวมที่ยิ่งใหญ่กว่าซึ่งบุคคลนี้ได้รับชีวิตและการดำรงอยู่ของเขาในทางหนึ่ง" (_[สัญญาประชาคม](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) จากมุมมองนี้ ภารกิจของผู้บัญญัติกฎหมายคือการจัดระเบียบ แก้ไข หรือแม้กระทั่งยกเลิกทรัพย์สินหากเห็นว่าจำเป็น สำหรับรูโซ ทรัพย์สินไม่ใช่สิ่งที่เกิดขึ้นตามธรรมชาติแต่เป็นสิ่งที่เกิดขึ้นตามข้อตกลง เช่นเดียวกับสังคมเอง ในทางกลับกัน โรเบสปิแยร์ได้กำหนดหลักการว่า "ทรัพย์สินคือสิทธิของพลเมืองทุกคนในการเพลิดเพลินและจัดการส่วนของทรัพย์สินที่กฎหมายรับรองให้เขา" ไม่มีสิทธิในทรัพย์สินตามธรรมชาติ มีเพียงการจัดการที่เป็นไปได้และขึ้นอยู่กับสถานการณ์ที่ไม่จำกัดจำนวนเท่านั้น @@ -177,6 +181,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### มายาคติของผู้บัญญัติกฎหมายผู้ทรงเมตตา + เมื่อเปิดตำราเรียน บาสเตียตได้สังเกตว่า มนุษยชาติจะต้องถึงวาระที่จะไม่มีอะไรเลยหากปราศจากการแทรกแซงของอำนาจ: @@ -259,6 +265,8 @@ Bastiat บอกเราว่ายังมีรูปแบบของก :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### ประวัติศาสตร์ที่เขียนโดยผู้ชนะ + เป็นที่ทราบกันดีว่าผู้ชนะเป็นผู้เขียนประวัติศาสตร์ ความสนใจมักจะมุ่งเน้นไปที่การพิชิตอำนาจ ชีวิตของผู้นำที่มีอำนาจ และความขัดแย้งที่ต่อต้านพวกเขากับผู้ที่ต้องการเข้ามาแทนที่พวกเขา @@ -322,6 +330,8 @@ Condorcet, ในผลงานของเขา [_Sketch for a Historical Pic :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### มุมมองแบบสังคมนิยมต่อประวัติศาสตร์ + มุมมองอีกด้านหนึ่งเกี่ยวกับประวัติศาสตร์นั้นมีอยู่จริง อย่างไรก็ตาม มันประสบความสำเร็จอย่างมากและได้รับการสนับสนุนจากปัญญาชนตะวันตกและตัวแทนจากโลกใต้มาเป็นเวลานาน นี่คือมุมมองทางประวัติศาสตร์แบบสังคมนิยมและมาร์กซิสต์ ![image](assets/en/013.webp) @@ -350,7 +360,7 @@ Condorcet, ในผลงานของเขา [_Sketch for a Historical Pic ### การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรมในคำถาม -ในความเป็นจริง การวิเคราะห์แบบมาร์กซิสต์บิดเบือนความเป็นจริงทางประวัติศาสตร์ของการปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม ลุดวิก ฟอน มีเซส ได้ชี้แจงประเด็นนี้ในตำราเศรษฐศาสตร์ของเขา [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (ดูโดยเฉพาะบทที่มีชื่อว่า [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) รวมถึงในชุดบรรยายที่ตีพิมพ์ภายใต้ชื่อ: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) (นอกจากนี้ยังควรอ่าน The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [ที่นี่](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) และ [ที่นี่](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)) +ในความเป็นจริง การวิเคราะห์แบบมาร์กซิสต์บิดเบือนความเป็นจริงทางประวัติศาสตร์ของการปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม ลุดวิก ฟอน มีเซส ได้ชี้แจงประเด็นนี้ในตำราเศรษฐศาสตร์ของเขา [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (ดูโดยเฉพาะบทที่มีชื่อว่า [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) รวมถึงในชุดบรรยายที่ตีพิมพ์ภายใต้ชื่อ: [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) (นอกจากนี้ยังควรอ่าน The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [ที่นี่](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) และ [ที่นี่](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)) ![image](assets/en/014.webp) @@ -421,7 +431,9 @@ Mises เสริมว่าการปรับปรุงสภาพข :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -ในบทสุดท้ายของ _Anatomy of the State_ (แปลเป็นภาษาฝรั่งเศสว่า _L’anatomie de l’Etat_ โดยสำนักพิมพ์ Résurgence) มาร์รีย์ รอธบาร์ด เสนอทฤษฎีประวัติศาสตร์ บทสั้นๆ นี้มีชื่อว่า 'ประวัติศาสตร์: การแข่งขันระหว่างอำนาจรัฐและอำนาจสังคม' ตามที่รอธบาร์ดกล่าว ประวัติศาสตร์สามารถเข้าใจได้ว่าเป็นความขัดแย้งที่ต่อเนื่องระหว่างหลักการพื้นฐานสองประการ: +### อำนาจรัฐกับอำนาจทางสังคม + +ในบทสุดท้ายของ _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (แปลเป็นภาษาฝรั่งเศสว่า _L’anatomie de l’Etat_ โดยสำนักพิมพ์ Résurgence) มาร์รีย์ รอธบาร์ด เสนอทฤษฎีประวัติศาสตร์ บทสั้นๆ นี้มีชื่อว่า 'ประวัติศาสตร์: การแข่งขันระหว่างอำนาจรัฐและอำนาจสังคม' ตามที่รอธบาร์ดกล่าว ประวัติศาสตร์สามารถเข้าใจได้ว่าเป็นความขัดแย้งที่ต่อเนื่องระหว่างหลักการพื้นฐานสองประการ: ![image](assets/en/017.webp) @@ -477,7 +489,7 @@ Rothbard เตือนเกี่ยวกับแนวคิดที่ > ในศตวรรษนี้ มนุษยชาติต้องเผชิญกับการครองอำนาจที่รุนแรงของรัฐอีกครั้ง; รัฐที่ตอนนี้ติดอาวุธด้วยพลังสร้างสรรค์ของมนุษย์ ซึ่งถูกยึดและบิดเบือนเพื่อประโยชน์ของตนเอง -> สังคมเสรีคืออะไรในที่สุด? มันคือสังคมที่ไม่มีการผูกขาด ในงานปรัชญาการเมืองของเขา _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982) Rothbard ตอบว่า: "สังคมที่ไม่มีความเป็นไปได้ทางกฎหมายในการรุกรานบังคับต่อบุคคลหรือทรัพย์สินของบุคคลใด ๆ" นี่คือเหตุผลที่ตามความเห็นของเขา ปรัชญาการเมืองซึ่งต้องกำหนดหลักการของสังคมที่ยุติธรรม สรุปลงในคำถามเดียว: "ใครเป็นเจ้าของสิ่งใดอย่างถูกต้อง?" +> สังคมเสรีคืออะไรในที่สุด? มันคือสังคมที่ไม่มีการผูกขาด ในงานปรัชญาการเมืองของเขา _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) Rothbard ตอบว่า: "สังคมที่ไม่มีความเป็นไปได้ทางกฎหมายในการรุกรานบังคับต่อบุคคลหรือทรัพย์สินของบุคคลใด ๆ" นี่คือเหตุผลที่ตามความเห็นของเขา ปรัชญาการเมืองซึ่งต้องกำหนดหลักการของสังคมที่ยุติธรรม สรุปลงในคำถามเดียว: "ใครเป็นเจ้าของสิ่งใดอย่างถูกต้อง?" > ขออภัย, ฉันไม่สามารถดูหรือแปลเนื้อหาจากภาพได้โดยตรง กรุณาพิมพ์ข้อความที่ต้องการให้แปลในรูปแบบข้อความแทน @@ -506,6 +518,8 @@ Rothbard เตือนเกี่ยวกับแนวคิดที่ :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### มรดกของประชาธิปไตยเอเธนส์ + ประสบการณ์ของประชาธิปไตยเอเธนส์ได้ทิ้งร่องรอยที่ยั่งยืนไว้ในประวัติศาสตร์ของความคิดทางการเมืองและยังคงสร้างแรงบันดาลใจให้กับอุดมคติของประชาธิปไตยและการมีส่วนร่วมของพลเมืองในโลกปัจจุบัน @@ -646,6 +660,8 @@ Cicero, นักพูดและนักปรัชญาชาวโรม :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### จักรวรรดิที่หลากหลายทางวัฒนธรรม + จักรวรรดิโรมันเป็นอาณาจักรที่กว้างใหญ่และมีความหลากหลายทางวัฒนธรรม ในช่วงที่รุ่งเรืองที่สุดประมาณปี ค.ศ. 117 มันเป็นรัฐที่มีหลายเชื้อชาติและหลายภาษาอย่างมหาศาล: @@ -800,6 +816,8 @@ Cicero ยังปฏิเสธประโยชน์ใช้สอยเ :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### ความเสื่อมและการล่มสลาย + ทำไมกรุงโรมถึงเสื่อมและล่มสลายในที่สุด? หลายคนชอบคิดว่าอาณาจักรโรมันล่มสลายอย่างฉับพลันภายใต้การรุกรานของชนเผ่าบาร์บาเรียน อย่างไรก็ตาม สาเหตุของการล่มสลายของอาณาจักรโรมันสามารถพบได้ตั้งแต่ก่อนหน้านั้นมาก ในลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยมและการควบคุมทางเศรษฐกิจและการเงิน @@ -911,6 +929,8 @@ Philippe Fabry สรุปว่า: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### รากฐานคริสเตียนของเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล + แนวคิดเรื่องเสรีภาพในศาสนาคริสต์พัฒนาขึ้นในเทววิทยายุคกลาง ตั้งแต่เซนต์ออกัสตินในศตวรรษที่ 4 จนถึงเซนต์โทมัส อไควนัสในศตวรรษที่ 13 แนวคิดนี้คืออะไร? @@ -988,6 +1008,8 @@ Philippe Fabry สรุปว่า: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### ความเป็นอิสระของเหตุผล + ในยุคกลาง เหตุผลและศรัทธาแข่งขันกันเพื่อเข้าถึงความจริง ตามหลังอาเบลาร์ดและอัลเบิร์ตผู้ยิ่งใหญ่ โทมัส อไควนัส ในศตวรรษที่ 13 เลือกที่จะปกป้องความเป็นอิสระของเหตุผลในความสัมพันธ์กับศรัทธา @@ -1049,6 +1071,8 @@ Philippe Fabry สรุปว่า: :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### ระบบเทวการเมือง + ในยุคกลาง คริสตจักรและราชวงศ์คริสเตียนได้รับมรดกแบบจำลองทางการเมืองจากจักรวรรดิโรมัน ซึ่งรู้จักกันในชื่อระบบเทวการเมือง — ระบบที่อำนาจถือว่าเป็นสิ่งศักดิ์สิทธิ์ หมายความว่าผู้นำทางการเมืองยังเป็นผู้นำทางศาสนาด้วย @@ -1107,6 +1131,8 @@ Philippe Fabry สรุปว่า: :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### มนุษย์ถูกสร้างขึ้นตามพระฉายาของพระเจ้า + ความคิดโบราณทำให้มนุษย์อยู่ใต้จักรวาลศักดิ์สิทธิ์ นั่นคือ จักรวาลที่สมบูรณ์แบบซึ่งมนุษย์เป็นเพียงส่วนหนึ่งเท่านั้น ในทางตรงกันข้าม เอกเทวนิยมยืนยันถึงคุณค่าที่เหนือกว่าของมนุษย์เหนือธรรมชาติ เนื่องจากมนุษย์ถูกสร้างขึ้นตามภาพลักษณ์ของพระเจ้า จุดสำคัญนี้เป็นจุดเริ่มต้นของการปฏิวัติทางจริยธรรมที่แท้จริง พระคัมภีร์ยืนยันถึงคุณค่าศักดิ์สิทธิ์และไม่มีที่สิ้นสุดของมนุษย์แต่ละคน @@ -1163,6 +1189,8 @@ Philippe Fabry สรุปว่า: :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### ศาสนาคริสต์กับเศรษฐกิจเสรี + เราได้เห็นแล้วว่าศาสนาคริสต์กำหนดหน้าที่ทางศีลธรรมให้กับผู้คนในการทำงานเพื่อปรับปรุงโลก พระเจ้าต้องการให้มนุษย์มีความสุข แต่ไม่ต้องการที่จะบรรลุความดีของเขาแทนเขา ดังนั้นจึงเป็นหน้าที่ของคริสเตียนที่จะต่อสู้กับความชั่วทางศีลธรรม รักเพื่อนบ้านของพวกเขา ช่วยเหลือเหยื่อ กล่าวโดยย่อคือทำงานเพื่อโลกที่ยุติธรรมและมีมนุษยธรรมมากขึ้น แล้วทุนนิยม ซึ่งก็คือเศรษฐกิจเสรีที่มีพื้นฐานจากทรัพย์สินส่วนตัวและเสรีภาพของสัญญา จะสอดคล้องกับหน้าที่ของคริสเตียนหรือไม่? @@ -1263,6 +1291,8 @@ Oresme เน้นย้ำว่าการเปลี่ยนแปลง :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### สงครามศาสนากับยุคแห่งการตรัสรู้ + ตั้งแต่ยุคฟื้นฟูศิลปวิทยา ยุโรปต้องเผชิญกับสงครามศาสนา ความอดทนอดกลั้นจึงกลายเป็นหนึ่งในสมรภูมิสำคัญของยุคแห่งการตรัสรู้ ![image](assets/en/050.webp) @@ -1320,7 +1350,7 @@ Oresme เน้นย้ำว่าการเปลี่ยนแปลง ### ความจริงต้องการเสรีภาพ -อย่างไรก็ตาม ฝรั่งเศสไม่ได้ขาดแคลนผู้มีความคิดอันยิ่งใหญ่ เป็นที่รู้จักกันน้อยว่า Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne เป็นนักคิดชั้นนำก่อนที่จะกลายเป็นผู้ควบคุมการเงินภายใต้พระเจ้าหลุยส์ที่ 16 เขาเป็นผู้เขียนบทความที่ยอดเยี่ยมเกี่ยวกับเศรษฐศาสตร์การเมือง _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766) ซึ่งมาก่อน _The Wealth of Nations_ (1776) ของ Adam Smith +อย่างไรก็ตาม ฝรั่งเศสไม่ได้ขาดแคลนผู้มีความคิดอันยิ่งใหญ่ เป็นที่รู้จักกันน้อยว่า Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laulne เป็นนักคิดชั้นนำก่อนที่จะกลายเป็นผู้ควบคุมการเงินภายใต้พระเจ้าหลุยส์ที่ 16 เขาเป็นผู้เขียนบทความที่ยอดเยี่ยมเกี่ยวกับเศรษฐศาสตร์การเมือง _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766) ซึ่งมาก่อน _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776) ของ Adam Smith ![image](assets/en/052.webp) @@ -1350,6 +1380,8 @@ Oresme เน้นย้ำว่าการเปลี่ยนแปลง :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### ต้นกำเนิดของลัทธิเสรีนิยมทางเศรษฐกิจ + ลัทธิเสรีนิยมทางเศรษฐกิจมักเกี่ยวข้องกับประเพณีแองโกล-แซกซอน ซึ่งมีต้นกำเนิดจากอดัม สมิธ มันถูกเปรียบเทียบกับ "ลัทธิเสรีนิยมทางการเมือง" ซึ่งกล่าวกันว่ามีต้นกำเนิดจากการตรัสรู้ในทวีปยุโรป โดยเฉพาะในฝรั่งเศส มุมมองนี้ไม่ถูกต้อง @@ -1448,6 +1480,8 @@ Oresme เน้นย้ำว่าการเปลี่ยนแปลง :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### สามเหตุการณ์ที่เปลี่ยนประวัติศาสตร์ + ปี 1776 เป็นปีที่มักจะไม่ค่อยถูกกล่าวถึงในตำราเรียนประวัติศาสตร์ อย่างไรก็ตาม ในสามประเทศ — ฝรั่งเศส สกอตแลนด์ และอเมริกาเหนือ — มีเหตุการณ์หลายอย่างที่จะทิ้งร่องรอยที่ไม่อาจลบเลือนได้ในประวัติศาสตร์แห่งเสรีภาพ @@ -1509,7 +1543,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ ประกอบด้วยสิ่งที่ต ### แถลงการณ์เพื่อเสรีภาพในอเมริกา -ในปี 1776 ชาวอังกฤษชื่อโทมัส เพน ได้ตีพิมพ์แผ่นพับที่รุนแรงในอเมริกา วิพากษ์วิจารณ์สถาบันกษัตริย์อังกฤษและสนับสนุนการประกาศอิสรภาพของชาวอาณานิคมอเมริกัน ชื่อว่า _Common Sense_ +ในปี 1776 ชาวอังกฤษชื่อโทมัส เพน ได้ตีพิมพ์แผ่นพับที่รุนแรงในอเมริกา วิพากษ์วิจารณ์สถาบันกษัตริย์อังกฤษและสนับสนุนการประกาศอิสรภาพของชาวอาณานิคมอเมริกัน ชื่อว่า _[Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_ ![image](assets/en/059.webp) @@ -1598,6 +1632,8 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### ฆราวาสวิสัยกับสังคมสมัยใหม่ + ความแปลกใหม่ที่ยิ่งใหญ่ของยุคสมัยใหม่ในประวัติศาสตร์ตะวันตกคือการเกิดขึ้นของสังคมที่จัดระเบียบตัวเองโดยไม่พึ่งพาศาสนา นี่ไม่ได้หมายถึงการหายไปของความเชื่อทางศาสนาหรือการตายของพระเจ้า แต่พระเจ้ากลายเป็นเรื่องส่วนตัว ไม่ได้ผสมกับกิจการทางการเมืองอีกต่อไป ไม่มีการหายไปของศาสนาแต่เป็นการปลดจากบทบาทการนำทาง มันกลายเป็นระบบของความเชื่อส่วนบุคคล @@ -1722,7 +1758,7 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: ด้วย Rousseau และ Robespierre ชาวฝรั่งเศสพยายามที่จะเชื่อว่าชาติหรือเจตจำนงทั่วไปมีอำนาจไม่จำกัดและเป็นการกระทำที่ชอบธรรมทั้งหมด จากข้อเท็จจริงที่ว่าประชาชนปกครอง จึงสรุปได้ว่าพวกเขามีสิทธิทั้งหมด มีความขัดแย้งอย่างชัดเจนระหว่างหลักการอันยิ่งใหญ่ของการปฏิวัติกับวิธีการที่ใช้เพื่อทำให้พวกเขาชนะ -นอกจากนี้ นี่คือความหมายของคำกล่าวโดยฟรีดริช ฮาเย็คในหนังสือของเขา _The Constitution of Liberty_: +นอกจากนี้ นี่คือความหมายของคำกล่าวโดยฟรีดริช ฮาเย็คในหนังสือของเขา _[The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > ปัจจัยชี้ขาดที่ทำให้ความพยายามของการปฏิวัติเพื่อส่งเสริมเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคลกลายเป็นสิ่งไร้ผลก็คือ มันสร้างภาพลวงตาว่า เนื่องจากอำนาจทั้งหมดได้ถูกมอบให้กับประชาชนแล้ว มาตรการป้องกันการใช้อำนาจในทางที่ผิดจึงกลายเป็นสิ่งที่ไม่จำเป็น @@ -1741,6 +1777,8 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### เสรีภาพแบบโบราณกับแบบสมัยใหม่ + ตามที่เบนจามิน คอนสแตนต์กล่าวไว้ เสรีภาพในสังคมสมัยใหม่ไม่สามารถเข้าใจได้ในลักษณะเดียวกับวัฒนธรรมโบราณอีกต่อไป ซึ่งเป็นการมีส่วนร่วมโดยตรงในกิจการของเมือง @@ -1753,7 +1791,7 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: ในสมัยโบราณ บุคคลมีอำนาจอธิปไตยในกิจการสาธารณะ แต่ถูกกดขี่ในความสัมพันธ์ส่วนตัวทั้งหมด การใช้สิทธิทางการเมืองชดเชยการเสียสละเสรีภาพส่วนบุคคล: สิทธิในการใช้แง่มุมต่าง ๆ ของอธิปไตยโดยตรง, การอภิปรายในที่สาธารณะ, การลงคะแนนเสียงในกฎหมาย, การตัดสินคดี, และการประเมินและตัดสินผู้พิพากษา มันคือเสรีภาพทางการเมืองและส่วนรวม: -> เสรีภาพของคนโบราณประกอบด้วยการมีส่วนร่วมอย่างกระตือรือร้นและต่อเนื่องในอำนาจร่วมกัน ในทางกลับกัน เสรีภาพของเราต้องประกอบด้วยการเพลิดเพลินอย่างสงบสุขในความเป็นอิสระส่วนบุคคล; ดังนั้นเราจึงต้องยึดมั่นในความเป็นอิสระของเรามากกว่าคนโบราณ (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> เสรีภาพของคนโบราณประกอบด้วยการมีส่วนร่วมอย่างกระตือรือร้นและต่อเนื่องในอำนาจร่วมกัน ในทางกลับกัน เสรีภาพของเราต้องประกอบด้วยการเพลิดเพลินอย่างสงบสุขในความเป็นอิสระส่วนบุคคล; ดังนั้นเราจึงต้องยึดมั่นในความเป็นอิสระของเรามากกว่าคนโบราณ (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/en/071.webp) @@ -1764,7 +1802,7 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: คำจำกัดความของเสรีภาพนี้พบในงานของจอห์น สจวร์ต มิลล์: -> เสรีภาพเพียงอย่างเดียวที่สมควรได้รับชื่อนี้คือการแสวงหาความดีของเราในวิถีทางของเราเอง ตราบใดที่เราไม่พยายามที่จะกีดกันผู้อื่นจากเสรีภาพของพวกเขาหรือขัดขวางความพยายามของพวกเขาในการได้รับมัน (...) มนุษยชาติได้รับประโยชน์มากขึ้นจากการปล่อยให้แต่ละคนใช้ชีวิตตามที่พวกเขาเห็นสมควรกว่าการบังคับให้พวกเขาใช้ชีวิตตามที่ผู้อื่นเห็นว่าดี (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> เสรีภาพเพียงอย่างเดียวที่สมควรได้รับชื่อนี้คือการแสวงหาความดีของเราในวิถีทางของเราเอง ตราบใดที่เราไม่พยายามที่จะกีดกันผู้อื่นจากเสรีภาพของพวกเขาหรือขัดขวางความพยายามของพวกเขาในการได้รับมัน (...) มนุษยชาติได้รับประโยชน์มากขึ้นจากการปล่อยให้แต่ละคนใช้ชีวิตตามที่พวกเขาเห็นสมควรกว่าการบังคับให้พวกเขาใช้ชีวิตตามที่ผู้อื่นเห็นว่าดี (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/en/072.webp) @@ -1817,6 +1855,8 @@ Paine โต้แย้งว่า: :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### ต๊อกเคอวิลกับลัทธิปัจเจกนิยมในระบอบประชาธิปไตย + Alexis de Tocqueville เป็นผู้สังเกตการณ์ที่เฉียบแหลมของประชาธิปไตยและนักวิจารณ์ของลัทธิปัจเจกนิยมในระบอบประชาธิปไตย @@ -1928,6 +1968,8 @@ Frédéric Bastiat คิดอย่างไรเกี่ยวกับป :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### การวิพากษ์วิจารณ์แห่งศตวรรษที่ 19 + มันเป็นช่วงศตวรรษที่ 19 ที่การวิพากษ์วิจารณ์ทุนนิยม โดยเฉพาะการวิพากษ์วิจารณ์แบบมาร์กซิสต์ ได้เกิดขึ้น @@ -1974,6 +2016,8 @@ Frédéric Bastiat คิดอย่างไรเกี่ยวกับป :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### การตอบสนองของสำนักออสเตรีย + สำนักเศรษฐศาสตร์ออสเตรีย ก่อตั้งโดย Carl Menger ในช่วงปลายศตวรรษที่ 19 ได้คัดค้านทฤษฎีของ Karl Marx ตั้งแต่เริ่มต้น @@ -2056,7 +2100,7 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: ![image](assets/en/085.webp) -ตั้งแต่ปี 1922 ในหนังสือ _Socialism_ ของเขา Ludwig von Mises ได้แสดงให้เห็นว่าสังคมนิยมจะนำไปสู่การขาดแคลนอย่างกว้างขวาง เนื่องจากผู้วางแผนส่วนกลางจะไม่สามารถทำการคำนวณทางเศรษฐกิจได้อย่างแม่นยำหากไม่มีระบบราคาที่ตลาดจัดหาให้ +ตั้งแต่ปี 1922 ในหนังสือ _[Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ ของเขา Ludwig von Mises ได้แสดงให้เห็นว่าสังคมนิยมจะนำไปสู่การขาดแคลนอย่างกว้างขวาง เนื่องจากผู้วางแผนส่วนกลางจะไม่สามารถทำการคำนวณทางเศรษฐกิจได้อย่างแม่นยำหากไม่มีระบบราคาที่ตลาดจัดหาให้ ## ถนนสู่ความเป็นทาส @@ -2067,7 +2111,9 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -วิตกกังวลกับการเพิ่มขึ้นของการแทรกแซงของรัฐบาลในเศรษฐกิจของประชาธิปไตยตะวันตก, Hayek เขียน _The Road to Serfdom_ เป็นบทวิจารณ์เชิงปรัชญาของลัทธิรวมหมู่, ไม่ว่าจะมาจากฝ่ายขวาหรือฝ่ายซ้าย. ตีพิมพ์หลายล้านเล่ม, ต้องขอบคุณ _Reader’s Digest_, หนังสือเล่มนี้ได้มีส่วนช่วยอย่างมากต่อชื่อเสียงของ Hayek ในสหรัฐอเมริกา. +### คำเตือนของฮาเย็คต่อลัทธิรวมหมู่ + +วิตกกังวลกับการเพิ่มขึ้นของการแทรกแซงของรัฐบาลในเศรษฐกิจของประชาธิปไตยตะวันตก, Hayek เขียน _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ เป็นบทวิจารณ์เชิงปรัชญาของลัทธิรวมหมู่, ไม่ว่าจะมาจากฝ่ายขวาหรือฝ่ายซ้าย. ตีพิมพ์หลายล้านเล่ม, ต้องขอบคุณ _Reader’s Digest_, หนังสือเล่มนี้ได้มีส่วนช่วยอย่างมากต่อชื่อเสียงของ Hayek ในสหรัฐอเมริกา. ![image](assets/en/086.webp) @@ -2130,6 +2176,8 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### การปฏิวัติแบบเคนส์ + ทุนนิยมมักถูกกล่าวหาว่าเป็นแหล่งที่มาของคำสั่ง: "เราต้องผลิตมากขึ้นเสมอ" หรือสูตร: "การบริโภคดีต่อการเติบโต" อย่างไรก็ตาม แนวคิดเหล่านี้ไม่ได้มาจากทุนนิยมแบบดั้งเดิม แต่จากเคนส์เซียนซึ่งครอบงำวงการวิทยาศาสตร์เศรษฐกิจและชนชั้นทางการเมืองตั้งแต่ทศวรรษที่ 1930 @@ -2139,7 +2187,7 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: ### การวิเคราะห์วิกฤตปี 1929 -ตีพิมพ์ในปี 1936 หนังสือของจอห์น เมย์นาร์ด เคนส์ _The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_ ได้กวาดล้างทุกสิ่งในเส้นทางของมัน ด้วยการตั้งคำถามถึงสาเหตุของภาวะเศรษฐกิจตกต่ำครั้งใหญ่และวิธีการที่จะออกจากมัน เขาได้อธิบายแนวคิดทางเศรษฐศาสตร์ใหม่ ซึ่งจะเปลี่ยนแปลงนักเศรษฐศาสตร์และนักการเมืองรุ่นต่อรุ่น +ตีพิมพ์ในปี 1936 หนังสือของจอห์น เมย์นาร์ด เคนส์ _[The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_ ได้กวาดล้างทุกสิ่งในเส้นทางของมัน ด้วยการตั้งคำถามถึงสาเหตุของภาวะเศรษฐกิจตกต่ำครั้งใหญ่และวิธีการที่จะออกจากมัน เขาได้อธิบายแนวคิดทางเศรษฐศาสตร์ใหม่ ซึ่งจะเปลี่ยนแปลงนักเศรษฐศาสตร์และนักการเมืองรุ่นต่อรุ่น ![image](assets/en/089.webp) @@ -2201,7 +2249,7 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: ![image](assets/en/094.webp) -ใน _The Monetary Sin of the West_ ในปี 1971 Rueff เขียนว่า: +ใน _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ ในปี 1971 Rueff เขียนว่า: > มันเป็นผ่านการขาดดุลงบประมาณที่มนุษย์สูญเสียเสรีภาพของพวกเขา @@ -2225,6 +2273,8 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### เงินตรากับอารยธรรม + เงินเป็นเครื่องมือที่ช่วยให้มนุษย์ก้าวข้ามการแลกเปลี่ยนสินค้า, ออมทรัพย์, และประสานงานในระดับใหญ่ผ่านตลาด มันทำให้เกิดความเป็นไปได้ในการแบ่งงานกันทำ, ความได้เปรียบเชิงเปรียบเทียบ, ผลประโยชน์จากการค้า, และการคำนวณทางเศรษฐกิจ หากไม่มีเงิน ก็จะไม่มีอารยธรรมสมัยใหม่ @@ -2284,7 +2334,7 @@ Mises เขียนว่า: ### ตลาดการเงินที่ปราศจากการผูกขาดของรัฐเป็นไปได้ -ในปี 1976, Hayek ได้เสนอทางเลือกแทนการผูกขาดของรัฐในการสร้างสกุลเงิน: การแข่งขันระหว่างสกุลเงินต่างๆ ในหนังสือของเขา, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_The Denationalization of Money_), เขาได้จินตนาการถึงตลาดการเงินที่ไม่มีการผูกขาดของรัฐซึ่งมีสกุลเงินเอกชนหลายสกุลอยู่ร่วมกัน การสร้างและการจัดการสกุลเงินต่างๆ โดยหน่วยงานเอกชนจะทำให้บุคคลสามารถเลือกสกุลเงินที่มีเสถียรภาพและน่าเชื่อถือที่สุดได้ ซึ่งจะส่งเสริมการแข่งขันและความมีวินัยในหมู่ผู้ออกสกุลเงิน +ในปี 1976, Hayek ได้เสนอทางเลือกแทนการผูกขาดของรัฐในการสร้างสกุลเงิน: การแข่งขันระหว่างสกุลเงินต่างๆ ในหนังสือของเขา, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_), เขาได้จินตนาการถึงตลาดการเงินที่ไม่มีการผูกขาดของรัฐซึ่งมีสกุลเงินเอกชนหลายสกุลอยู่ร่วมกัน การสร้างและการจัดการสกุลเงินต่างๆ โดยหน่วยงานเอกชนจะทำให้บุคคลสามารถเลือกสกุลเงินที่มีเสถียรภาพและน่าเชื่อถือที่สุดได้ ซึ่งจะส่งเสริมการแข่งขันและความมีวินัยในหมู่ผู้ออกสกุลเงิน ![image](assets/en/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/tr.md b/courses/phi101/tr.md index 2727234cf90..4b63f400248 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/tr.md +++ b/courses/phi101/tr.md @@ -26,6 +26,7 @@ Antik Çağ'dan Aydınlanma'ya kadar, toplumlar hoşgörüyü ve ekonomik bağı :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Derse Giriş PHI101'e hoş geldiniz! @@ -79,11 +80,12 @@ Son olarak, bu bölümde refah devletinin, özellikle Keynes'in zaferi ve altın :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Neden Özgürlüğün Tarihini İncelemeli? Neden bu dersin başlığı: Özgürlüğün Tarihi? Çünkü çağımızı daha etkili bir şekilde değerlendirmek ve sağduyulu davranmak için fikirler ve olaylar arasındaki ilişkiyi anlamamız gerekiyor. Özgürlüğün ne olduğunu ve ona neden değer vermemiz gerektiğini daha iyi anlamamız için gerekli olan Elements'ı geçmişte bulabiliriz. -> Geçmiş artık geleceği aydınlatmadığında, ruh karanlıkta yürür (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracy in America_). +> Geçmiş artık geleceği aydınlatmadığında, ruh karanlıkta yürür (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracy in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_). ![image](assets/tr/001.webp) @@ -159,7 +161,7 @@ Quesnay'in öğrencileri Turgot ve Say'e göre, yasa koyucuların kaprislerinden ![image](assets/tr/007.webp) -> "Bir halkın kuruluşunu üstlenmeye cesaret eden kişi," der Rousseau, "deyim yerindeyse insan doğasını değiştirmeye, kendi başına mükemmel ve yalnız bir bütün olan her bireyi, bu bireyin bir şekilde yaşamını ve varlığını aldığı daha büyük bir bütünün parçası haline getirmeye muktedir olduğunu hissetmelidir." (_Toplumsal Sözleşme_) +> "Bir halkın kuruluşunu üstlenmeye cesaret eden kişi," der Rousseau, "deyim yerindeyse insan doğasını değiştirmeye, kendi başına mükemmel ve yalnız bir bütün olan her bireyi, bu bireyin bir şekilde yaşamını ve varlığını aldığı daha büyük bir bütünün parçası haline getirmeye muktedir olduğunu hissetmelidir." (_[Toplumsal Sözleşme](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_) Bu perspektiften bakıldığında, yasa koyucunun görevi mülkiyeti düzenlemek, değiştirmek ve hatta gerekli görüldüğü takdirde ortadan kaldırmaktır. Rousseau için mülkiyet doğal değil, toplumun kendisi gibi gelenekseldir. Robespierre ise "Mülkiyet, her yurttaşın kendisine yasayla garanti edilen malların bir kısmından yararlanma ve tasarruf etme hakkıdır" ilkesini ortaya koyar Mülkiyete ilişkin doğal bir hak yoktur; yalnızca belirsiz sayıda olası ve olumsal düzenleme vardır. @@ -171,6 +173,7 @@ Bu perspektiften bakıldığında, yasa koyucunun görevi mülkiyeti düzenlemek :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Kurtarıcı Yasa Koyucu Miti Bastiat, ders kitaplarını açtığınızda, insanlığın gücün müdahalesi olmadan hiçliğe mahkum olacağını öğrenirsiniz: @@ -253,6 +256,7 @@ Bastiat, 1850 yılında Roma'da ölmeden birkaç gün önce arkadaşı Prosper P :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Galiplerin Yazdığı Tarih Tarihi galiplerin yazdığı bilinmektedir. Dikkatler genellikle iktidarın fethine, iktidardaki liderlerin yaşamlarına ve onların yerini almak isteyenlere karşı çıkan çatışmalara odaklanır. @@ -316,6 +320,8 @@ Bu tez 1983 tarihli anıtsal bir eserde de yer almaktadır: _Hukuk ve Devrim: Th :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Tarihe Sosyalist Bakış + Ancak tarihe başka bir bakış açısı da mevcuttur. Bu bakış açısı oldukça başarılı olmuş ve uzun zamandır Batılı entelektüellerin ve Küresel Güney'den temsilcilerin desteğini almıştır. Bu, sosyalist ve Marksist tarih görüşüdür. ![image](assets/tr/013.webp) @@ -344,7 +350,7 @@ Bu analiz, artı değerin ve ekonomik hayatın işbirliğine dayalı ve dinamik ### Sanayi Devrimi Sorgulanıyor -Aslında Marksist analiz Sanayi Devrimi'nin tarihsel gerçekliğini çarpıtmaktadır. Ludwig von Mises bu konuya [_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) adlı ekonomi incelemesinde (özellikle [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2) başlıklı bölüme bakınız) ve [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) başlığı altında yayınlanan bir dizi derste açıklık getirmiştir. (Ayrıca okumaya değer, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [burada](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ve [burada](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Aslında Marksist analiz Sanayi Devrimi'nin tarihsel gerçekliğini çarpıtmaktadır. Ludwig von Mises bu konuya [_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) adlı ekonomi incelemesinde (özellikle [Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2) başlıklı bölüme bakınız) ve [_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm) başlığı altında yayınlanan bir dizi derste açıklık getirmiştir. (Ayrıca okumaya değer, The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality [burada](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) ve [burada](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![image](assets/tr/014.webp) @@ -414,8 +420,9 @@ Bu bölümün sonunda, Avrupa'nın ekonomik ve kültürel yükselişi dünyanın :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: +### Devlet Gücüne Karşı Toplumsal Güç -Murray Rothbard, _Anatomy of the State_ (Résurgence editions tarafından Fransızca'ya _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ olarak çevrilmiştir) kitabının son bölümünde bir tarih teorisi önermektedir. Bu çok kısa bölümün başlığı 'Tarih: Devlet Gücü ile Toplumsal Güç Arasında Bir Yarış' başlığını taşımaktadır Rothbard'a göre tarih, iki temel ilke arasındaki sürekli bir çatışma olarak anlaşılabilir: +Murray Rothbard, _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)_ (Résurgence editions tarafından Fransızca'ya _L'anatomie de l'Etat_ olarak çevrilmiştir) kitabının son bölümünde bir tarih teorisi önermektedir. Bu çok kısa bölümün başlığı 'Tarih: Devlet Gücü ile Toplumsal Güç Arasında Bir Yarış' başlığını taşımaktadır Rothbard'a göre tarih, iki temel ilke arasındaki sürekli bir çatışma olarak anlaşılabilir: ![image](assets/tr/017.webp) @@ -471,7 +478,7 @@ Rothbard'a göre tarih doğrusal bir süreç değil, daha ziyade toplumsal güc > Bu yüzyılda, insan ırkı bir kez daha Devletin öldürücü saltanatıyla karşı karşıyadır; Devlet artık insanın yaratıcı gücüyle silahlanmış, el koymuş ve kendi amaçları doğrultusunda saptırmıştır. -> Sonuçta özgür bir toplum nedir? Tekelin olmadığı bir toplumdur. Rothbard, _Ethics of Liberty_ (1982) adlı siyaset felsefesi eserinde bu soruyu şöyle yanıtlıyor: "Herhangi bir bireyin şahsına veya mülküne karşı zorlayıcı bir saldırının yasal olarak mümkün olmadığı bir toplumdur." Bu nedenle, ona göre, adil bir toplumun ilkelerini tanımlaması gereken siyaset felsefesi tek bir soruya indirgenir: "Kim meşru olarak neye sahiptir?" +> Sonuçta özgür bir toplum nedir? Tekelin olmadığı bir toplumdur. Rothbard, _[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982) adlı siyaset felsefesi eserinde bu soruyu şöyle yanıtlıyor: "Herhangi bir bireyin şahsına veya mülküne karşı zorlayıcı bir saldırının yasal olarak mümkün olmadığı bir toplumdur." Bu nedenle, ona göre, adil bir toplumun ilkelerini tanımlaması gereken siyaset felsefesi tek bir soruya indirgenir: "Kim meşru olarak neye sahiptir?" > ![image](assets/tr/019.webp) @@ -499,6 +506,7 @@ Ve ekliyor: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Atina Demokrasisinin Mirası Atina demokrasisi deneyimi, siyasi düşünce tarihinde kalıcı bir iz bırakmıştır ve günümüz dünyasında demokrasi ve vatandaş katılımı ideallerine ilham vermeye devam etmektedir. @@ -639,6 +647,7 @@ Gerçeğe yaklaşmak için sahip olduğumuz tek araç eleştiri ve tartışmadı :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Kozmopolit Bir İmparatorluk Roma İmparatorluğu geniş, kozmopolit bir yapıydı. MS 117 civarında zirveye ulaştığında, çok etnikli ve çok dilli muazzam bir devletti: @@ -793,6 +802,7 @@ Hukukun yalnızca yasama organı tarafından çıkarılan tüzüklere indirgenem :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Gerileme ve Çöküş Roma neden geriledi ve nihayetinde yıkıldı? Birçok kişi Roma İmparatorluğu'nun barbar istilalarının etkisiyle aniden çöktüğünü düşünmekten hoşlanır. Ancak Roma İmparatorluğu'nun çöküşünün nedenleri çok daha eskilere, emperyalizme ve ekonomik ve parasal dirijizme dayanmaktadır. @@ -905,6 +915,7 @@ Ve ekliyor: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Bireysel Özgürlüğün Hıristiyan Kökenleri Hıristiyan özgürlük kavramı, 4. yüzyılda Aziz Augustine'den 13. yüzyılda Aziz Thomas Aquinas'a kadar Ortaçağ teolojisinde gelişmiştir. Nedir bu fikir? @@ -982,6 +993,7 @@ Aziz Thomas'a göre: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Aklın Özerkliği Ortaçağ'da akıl ve inanç hakikate erişim için rekabet halindeydi. Abélard ve Büyük Albert'in ardından 13. yüzyılda Thomas Aquinas, inanç karşısında aklın özerkliğini savunmayı seçmiştir. @@ -1043,6 +1055,7 @@ O andan itibaren dini rasyonalizm mistisizme kesin olarak üstün gelecektir. :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Teolojik-Politik Sistem Orta Çağ'da Kilise ve Hıristiyan monarşileri, Roma İmparatorluğu'ndan teolojik-politik sistem olarak bilinen bir siyasi modeli miras almıştır - bu sistemde iktidar kutsal kabul edilir, yani siyasi lider aynı zamanda dini bir liderdir. @@ -1101,6 +1114,7 @@ Kilise'nin teokratik cazibesi "ilahi hak" teorisiyle de çatışmaktadır Fransa :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Tanrı'nın Suretinde Yaratılan İnsan Antik düşünce insanı ilahi bir kozmosa, yani yalnızca bir parçası olduğu mükemmel bir evrene tabi kılmıştır. Öte yandan tektanrıcılık, insan Tanrı'nın suretinde yaratıldığı ölçüde, insanın doğa üzerindeki sonsuz üstün değerini ileri sürer. Bu can alıcı nokta, gerçek bir etik devrimin kökeninde yer alır. Kutsal Kitap her bir insanın kutsal ve sonsuz değerini teyit eder. @@ -1157,6 +1171,7 @@ Yerli halklar meselesi, siyasi-dini monolitteki ilk çatlaktı. Siyasi toplumun :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Hıristiyanlık ve Serbest Ekonomi Hıristiyanlığın insanlara dünyayı iyileştirmek için çalışmaları yönünde ahlaki bir görev yüklediğini gördük. Tanrı insanın mutlu olmasını ister ama onun yerine iyiliğinin sağlanmasını istemez. Bu nedenle ahlaki kötülükle mücadele etmek, komşusunu sevmek, mağdurlara yardım etmek, kısacası daha adil ve insancıl bir dünya için çalışmak Hıristiyanların görevidir. Kapitalizm, yani özel mülkiyete ve sözleşme özgürlüğüne dayalı serbest ekonomi, Hıristiyan göreviyle uyumlu mudur? @@ -1253,6 +1268,7 @@ Dahası, iki farklı para birimi yasal ihaleden faydalanırsa, aracılar daha de :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Din Savaşları ve Aydınlanma Avrupa, Rönesans'tan itibaren din savaşlarıyla çalkalanacaktı. Bu nedenle hoşgörü, Aydınlanma'nın en büyük savaşlarından biri haline geldi. @@ -1311,7 +1327,7 @@ Voltaire, "Ticaret Üzerine" başlıklı Onuncu Mektup'ta Fransız zihniyetini ### Gerçek Özgürlük Gerektirir -Yine de Fransa büyük beyinlerden yoksun değildi. Çok az bilinir ama Baron de Laulne Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, 16. Louis döneminde Maliye Genel Kontrolörü olmadan önce önde gelen bir düşünürdü. Adam Smith'in _The Wealth of Nations_ (1776) adlı eserinden önce yazılmış olan _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766) adlı politik ekonomi üzerine ustaca bir incelemenin yazarıydı. +Yine de Fransa büyük beyinlerden yoksun değildi. Çok az bilinir ama Baron de Laulne Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, 16. Louis döneminde Maliye Genel Kontrolörü olmadan önce önde gelen bir düşünürdü. Adam Smith'in _[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776) adlı eserinden önce yazılmış olan _Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766) adlı politik ekonomi üzerine ustaca bir incelemenin yazarıydı. ![image](assets/tr/052.webp) @@ -1340,6 +1356,8 @@ Başka bir deyişle, hoşgörülü olmak dine düşman olmak anlamına gelmez. D :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Ekonomik Liberalizmin Kökenleri + Ekonomik liberalizm genellikle Adam Smith'ten kaynaklanan Anglo-Sakson geleneği ile ilişkilendirilir. Kıta Aydınlanmasından, özellikle de Fransa'dan kaynaklandığı söylenen "siyasi liberalizm" ile karşılaştırılır. Bu görüş yanlıştır. @@ -1437,6 +1455,7 @@ Kısacası, herkes kendi özel çıkarını doğal hukuka uygun olarak özgürce :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Tarihi Değiştiren Üç Olay 1776, tarih ders kitaplarında genellikle fark edilmeyen bir yıldır. Ancak üç ülkede - Fransa, İskoçya ve Kuzey Amerika - yaşanan bazı olaylar özgürlük tarihinde silinmez bir iz bırakacaktır. @@ -1497,7 +1516,7 @@ Aynı zamanda özgür ve gönüllü Exchange'nın eşitlikçi ve anti-hiyerarşi ### Amerika'da Özgürlük İçin Bir Manifesto -1776 yılında Thomas Paine adlı bir İngiliz, Amerika'da İngiliz monarşisini eleştiren ve Amerikan kolonicilerinin bağımsızlığını savunan _COPYommon Sense_ adlı sert bir broşür yayınladı. +1776 yılında Thomas Paine adlı bir İngiliz, Amerika'da İngiliz monarşisini eleştiren ve Amerikan kolonicilerinin bağımsızlığını savunan _[COPYommon Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_ adlı sert bir broşür yayınladı. ![image](assets/tr/059.webp) @@ -1585,6 +1604,7 @@ Kendiliğinden düzen kavramı, İskoç Aydınlanmasına, özellikle de Adam Smi :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sekülerleşme ve Modern Toplum Batı tarihindeki bu modern dönemin en büyük yeniliği, kendisini dini bağımlılığın dışında organize eden bir toplumun ortaya çıkmasıdır. Bu, dini inancın ortadan kalkması ya da Tanrı'nın ölümü anlamına gelmemektedir. Ancak Tanrı artık siyasi meselelerle karıştırılmayan özel bir mesele haline gelir. Dinin ortadan kalkması değil ama yol gösterici rolünün tahttan indirilmesi söz konusudur. Bireysel inançlar sistemi haline gelir. @@ -1710,7 +1730,7 @@ Amerika'da ne ekonomik dirigisme ne de Assignats'ınki gibi bir parasal iflas va Rousseau ve Robespierre ile Fransızlar, Ulusun ya da genel iradenin sınırsız güce sahip olduğuna ve tüm eylemleri haklı çıkardığına inanmaya çalıştılar. Halkın yönettiği gerçeğinden, tüm haklara sahip olduğu sonucuna varıldı. Devrimin büyük ilkeleri ile bunları zafere ulaştırmak için kullanılan araçlar arasında açıkça bir çelişki vardı. -Dahası, Friedrich Hayek'in _Özgürlüğün Anayasası_ adlı kitabında söylediği sözün anlamı da budur: +Dahası, Friedrich Hayek'in _[Özgürlüğün Anayasası](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_ adlı kitabında söylediği sözün anlamı da budur: > Devrimin bireysel özgürlüğün geliştirilmesi yönündeki çabalarını boşa çıkaran belirleyici faktör, tüm iktidarın halka devredildiği ölçüde, bu iktidarın kötüye kullanılmasına karşı her türlü önlemin gereksiz hale geldiği yanılsamasını yaratmasıydı. @@ -1728,6 +1748,7 @@ Dahası, Friedrich Hayek'in _Özgürlüğün Anayasası_ adlı kitabında söyle :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Antik Özgürlüğe Karşı Modern Özgürlük Benjamin Constant'a göre, modern toplumlarda özgürlük artık antik kültürlerdeki gibi, kentin işlerine doğrudan katılım olarak anlaşılamaz. @@ -1741,7 +1762,7 @@ Benjamin Constant'a göre, modern toplumlarda özgürlük artık antik kültürl Eski zamanlarda bireyler kamusal işlerde egemen, ancak tüm özel ilişkilerinde köleleştirilmişlerdi. Siyasi hakların kullanımı bireysel özgürlüğün feda edilmesini telafi etti: egemenliğin çeşitli yönlerini doğrudan kullanma, kamusal alanda müzakere etme, yasaları oylama, hüküm verme ve yargıçları değerlendirme ve yargılama hakkı. Bu siyasi ve kolektif bir özgürlüktür: -> Eskilerin özgürlüğü kolektif güce aktif ve sürekli katılımdan ibaretti. Öte yandan bizim özgürlüğümüz, özel bağımsızlığın barışçıl bir şekilde kullanılmasından ibaret olmalıdır; bundan da bağımsızlığımıza eskilerden çok daha fazla bağlı olmamız gerektiği sonucu çıkar. (_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> Eskilerin özgürlüğü kolektif güce aktif ve sürekli katılımdan ibaretti. Öte yandan bizim özgürlüğümüz, özel bağımsızlığın barışçıl bir şekilde kullanılmasından ibaret olmalıdır; bundan da bağımsızlığımıza eskilerden çok daha fazla bağlı olmamız gerektiği sonucu çıkar. (_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/tr/071.webp) @@ -1752,7 +1773,7 @@ Modern özgürlük, ekonomik özgürlüğü de içeren ve özel hayatın gizlili Özgürlüğün bu tanımı John Stuart Mill'de bulunmaktadır: -> Bu adı hak eden tek özgürlük, başkalarını kendilerininkinden mahrum bırakmaya çalışmadığımız ya da onların iyiyi elde etme çabalarını engellemediğimiz sürece, kendi iyimizin peşinden kendi yolumuzla gitmektir. (...) İnsanlık, başkalarının iyi bulduğu şekilde yaşamaya zorlamaktansa, herkesin uygun gördüğü şekilde yaşamasına izin vererek daha fazla kazanım elde eder. (_On Liberty_, 1859) +> Bu adı hak eden tek özgürlük, başkalarını kendilerininkinden mahrum bırakmaya çalışmadığımız ya da onların iyiyi elde etme çabalarını engellemediğimiz sürece, kendi iyimizin peşinden kendi yolumuzla gitmektir. (...) İnsanlık, başkalarının iyi bulduğu şekilde yaşamaya zorlamaktansa, herkesin uygun gördüğü şekilde yaşamasına izin vererek daha fazla kazanım elde eder. (_[On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/tr/072.webp) @@ -1802,6 +1823,7 @@ Başka bir deyişle, özgür bir toplumda kamusal alan ile özel alan arasında :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville ve Demokratik Bireycilik Alexis de Tocqueville, demokrasinin keskin bir gözlemcisi ve demokratik bireyciliğin bir eleştirmeniydi. @@ -1913,6 +1935,7 @@ Dünyaya bir göz atın. En mutlu, en ahlaklı ve en huzurlu insanlar hangileri? :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19. Yüzyıl Eleştirisi Kapitalizm eleştirisi, özellikle de Marksist eleştiri 19. yüzyılda ortaya çıkmıştır. @@ -1959,6 +1982,7 @@ Dolayısıyla ona göre, insanı kapitalist kölelikten kurtaracak ve böylece i :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Avusturya Okulu'nun Yanıtı Carl Menger tarafından 19. yüzyılın sonunda kurulan Avusturya Ekonomi Okulu, Karl Marx'ın teorilerine başından beri karşı çıkmıştır. @@ -2042,7 +2066,7 @@ Marksistler, üretim araçlarının işçiler tarafından sahiplenildiği ve kon ![image](assets/tr/085.webp) -Ludwig von Mises, 1922 gibi erken bir tarihte _Sosyalizm _ adlı kitabında, merkezi planlamacılar piyasanın sağladığı fiyat sistemi olmadan doğru ekonomik hesaplamalar yapamayacağından, sosyalizmin yaygın kıtlıklara yol açacağını göstermiştir. +Ludwig von Mises, 1922 gibi erken bir tarihte _[Sosyalizm ](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)_ adlı kitabında, merkezi planlamacılar piyasanın sağladığı fiyat sistemi olmadan doğru ekonomik hesaplamalar yapamayacağından, sosyalizmin yaygın kıtlıklara yol açacağını göstermiştir. ## Köleliğe Giden Yol @@ -2052,8 +2076,9 @@ Ludwig von Mises, 1922 gibi erken bir tarihte _Sosyalizm _ adlı kitabında, mer :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: +### Hayek'in Kolektivizme Karşı Uyarısı -Batı demokrasilerinin ekonomilerinde devlet müdahaleciliğinin yükselişinden endişe duyan Hayek, ister sağdan ister soldan gelsin, kolektivizmin felsefi bir eleştirisi olarak _The Road to Serfdom_ kitabını yazdı. Reader's Digest_ sayesinde birkaç milyon adet basılan bu kitap, Hayek'in Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki ününe büyük katkıda bulunmuştur. +Batı demokrasilerinin ekonomilerinde devlet müdahaleciliğinin yükselişinden endişe duyan Hayek, ister sağdan ister soldan gelsin, kolektivizmin felsefi bir eleştirisi olarak _[The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ kitabını yazdı. Reader's Digest_ sayesinde birkaç milyon adet basılan bu kitap, Hayek'in Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki ününe büyük katkıda bulunmuştur. ![image](assets/tr/086.webp) @@ -2115,6 +2140,7 @@ Sonuç olarak Hayek, çağdaşlarını, insanlığı "yakın geçmişte hayatım :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Keynesçi Devrim Kapitalizm sık sık "her zaman daha fazla üretmeliyiz "Her zaman daha fazla üretmeliyiz" ya da şu formülün kaynağı olmakla suçlanır: "Tüketmek büyüme için iyidir." Ancak bu fikirler geleneksel kapitalizmden değil, 1930'lardan bu yana ekonomi bilimi alanına ve siyasi sınıfa hakim olan Keynesçilikten kaynaklanmaktadır. @@ -2125,7 +2151,7 @@ Kapitalizm sık sık "her zaman daha fazla üretmeliyiz "Her zaman daha fazla ü ### 1929 Krizinin Analizi -John Maynard Keynes'in 1936 yılında yayınlanan kitabı _İstihdam, Faiz ve Paranın Genel Teorisi_ önüne çıkan her şeyi silip süpürdü. Büyük Buhran'ın nedenlerini ve bundan çıkış yollarını sorgulayan Keynes, nesiller boyu ekonomistleri ve politikacıları dönüştürecek yeni bir ekonomik paradigma tanımladı. +John Maynard Keynes'in 1936 yılında yayınlanan kitabı _[İstihdam, Faiz ve Paranın Genel Teorisi](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_ önüne çıkan her şeyi silip süpürdü. Büyük Buhran'ın nedenlerini ve bundan çıkış yollarını sorgulayan Keynes, nesiller boyu ekonomistleri ve politikacıları dönüştürecek yeni bir ekonomik paradigma tanımladı. ![image](assets/tr/089.webp) @@ -2187,7 +2213,7 @@ Bu kitap "Sağlam Para ya da Totaliter Devlet" başlıklı önemli bir bölüm i ![image](assets/tr/094.webp) -Rueff, 1971 tarihli _The Monetary Sin of the West_ (Batı'nın Parasal Günahı) adlı kitabında şöyle yazmaktadır: +Rueff, 1971 tarihli _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ (Batı'nın Parasal Günahı) adlı kitabında şöyle yazmaktadır: > Bütçe açığı nedeniyle insanlar özgürlüklerini kaybederler. @@ -2210,6 +2236,7 @@ Hiçbir din, istihdam kadar hızlı bir şekilde dünya çapında yayılmamışt :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Para ve Uygarlık Para, insanların takasın ötesine geçmesini, tasarruf etmesini ve piyasa aracılığıyla büyük ölçekte koordine olmasını sağlayan bir araçtır. Emeğin uzmanlaşmasını, karşılaştırmalı üstünlüğü, ticaretten elde edilen kazançları ve ekonomik hesaplamayı mümkün kılmıştır. Para olmasaydı modern uygarlık da olmazdı. @@ -2272,7 +2299,7 @@ Aksine, Jacques Rueff gibi insanlar için değerli metalden vazgeçmek, yalnızc ### Devlet tekelinin olmadığı bir para piyasası mümkündür -1976'da Hayek, Devletin para yaratma tekeline bir alternatif önerdi: para birimleri arasında rekabet. Hayek, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_Paranın Denasyonalizasyonu_) adlı kitabında, Devlet tekelinin olmadığı, çeşitli özel para birimlerinin bir arada var olacağı bir para piyasası öngörmüştür. Farklı para birimlerinin özel kuruluşlar tarafından oluşturulması ve yönetilmesi, bireylerin en istikrarlı ve güvenilir para birimini seçmelerine olanak tanıyacak ve böylece para basanlar arasında rekabet ve disiplini teşvik edecektir. +1976'da Hayek, Devletin para yaratma tekeline bir alternatif önerdi: para birimleri arasında rekabet. Hayek, _Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (_[Paranın Denasyonalizasyonu](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_) adlı kitabında, Devlet tekelinin olmadığı, çeşitli özel para birimlerinin bir arada var olacağı bir para piyasası öngörmüştür. Farklı para birimlerinin özel kuruluşlar tarafından oluşturulması ve yönetilmesi, bireylerin en istikrarlı ve güvenilir para birimini seçmelerine olanak tanıyacak ve böylece para basanlar arasında rekabet ve disiplini teşvik edecektir. ![image](assets/tr/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/vi.md b/courses/phi101/vi.md index f9b83f7ebce..9810d56c078 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/vi.md +++ b/courses/phi101/vi.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ Từ thời Cổ đại qua thời Khai sáng, tự do đã vươn lên khi các :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### Giới thiệu về khóa học + Chào mừng bạn đến với khóa học PHI101! Khóa học này mời bạn khám phá sự tiến hóa của tự do qua lịch sử bằng cách phân tích các trường phái tư tưởng lớn đã định hình nó. Bạn sẽ khám phá cách khái niệm tự do được xây dựng qua các thế kỷ, dù là trong sự đối lập hay hợp tác với quyền lực, qua một hành trình lịch sử từ Thời cổ đại đến các cuộc tranh luận đương đại. @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ Sẵn sàng để khám phá cuộc hành trình triết học độc đáo này :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### Tại sao nghiên cứu lịch sử của tự do? + Tại sao khoá học này được đặt tên là lịch sử của tự do? Bởi vì chúng ta cần hiểu mối quan hệ giữa các ý tưởng và các sự kiện, để đánh giá thời đại của chúng ta một cách sâu sắc và hành động sáng suốt. Chính trong quá khứ, chúng ta tìm thấy các yếu tố để hiểu rõ hơn tự do là gì và tại sao chúng ta phải trân trọng nó. -> Khi quá khứ không còn soi sáng cho tương lai, tâm trí bước đi trong bóng tối (Alexis de Tocqueville - _Nền dân trị Mỹ_.) +> Khi quá khứ không còn soi sáng cho tương lai, tâm trí bước đi trong bóng tối (Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Nền dân trị Mỹ](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_.) ![image](assets/vi/001.webp) @@ -110,7 +114,7 @@ Triết lý thứ hai được tìm thấy ở các tác giả như Rousseau, Ro ![image](assets/vi/007.webp) -> "Người nào dám đảm nhận công việc thành lập một dân tộc," Rousseau nói, "phải cảm thấy mình có khả năng thay đổi, có thể nói, bản chất con người, biến mỗi cá nhân, người mà bản thân là một toàn thể hoàn hảo và cô độc, thành một phần của một toàn thể lớn hơn mà từ đó cá nhân này nhận được cuộc sống và sự tồn tại của mình." (_Khế ước xã hội - Contrat social_) +> "Người nào dám đảm nhận công việc thành lập một dân tộc," Rousseau nói, "phải cảm thấy mình có khả năng thay đổi, có thể nói, bản chất con người, biến mỗi cá nhân, người mà bản thân là một toàn thể hoàn hảo và cô độc, thành một phần của một toàn thể lớn hơn mà từ đó cá nhân này nhận được cuộc sống và sự tồn tại của mình." (_[Khế ước xã hội](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract) - Contrat social_) Từ quan điểm này, nhiệm vụ của nhà lập pháp là tổ chức, thay đổi, thậm chí là bãi bỏ quyền sở hữu nếu ông ta cho rằng điều đó là tốt. Đối với Rousseau, quyền sở hữu không phải là tự nhiên mà là thông lệ, giống như chính xã hội. Đến lượt mình, Robespierre thiết lập nguyên tắc rằng "Quyền sở hữu là quyền của mọi công dân được hưởng và sử dụng phần hàng hóa được pháp luật bảo đảm cho mình." Không có quyền sở hữu tự nhiên đối, chỉ có một số lượng vô hạn các sắp xếp khả dĩ và tùy ý. @@ -120,6 +124,8 @@ Từ quan điểm này, nhiệm vụ của nhà lập pháp là tổ chức, tha :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### Huyền thoại về nhà lập pháp quan phòng + Theo Bastiat, khi một người mở cuốn sách giáo khoa ở trường, người ta học được rằng nhân loại sẽ tiến về miền hư vô nếu không có sự can thiệp của quyền lực: > "Chỉ cần mở, gần như ngẫu nhiên, bất kỳ một cuốn sách về triết học, chính trị, hoặc lịch sử nào để thấy được ý tưởng này đã ăn sâu vào đất nước chúng ta như thế nào, một ý tưởng sinh ra từ các nghiên cứu cổ điển và là mẹ đẻ của Chủ nghĩa Xã hội, rằng nhân loại là một vật chất trơ nhận được cuộc sống, tổ chức, đạo đức, và sự thịnh vượng từ quyền lực; — hoặc tồi tệ hơn, rằng chính nhân loại tự mình hướng tới sự suy đồi và chỉ được ngăn chặn trên con dốc này bởi bàn tay bí ẩn của Nhà Lập pháp." ([_Luật Pháp - La Loi_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -181,6 +187,8 @@ Vài ngày trước khi qua đời ở Rome vào năm 1850, Bastiat đã tâm s :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### Lịch sử được viết bởi những người chiến thắng + Như đã biết, lịch sử được viết bởi những người chiến thắng. Sự chú ý thường tập trung vào việc chinh phục quyền lực, cuộc sống của các nhà lãnh đạo cầm quyền, và những xung đột giữa họ với những người muốn chiếm lấy vị trí của họ. ![image](assets/vi/010.webp) @@ -226,6 +234,8 @@ Luận điểm này cũng được tìm thấy trong một công trình quan tr :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### Quan điểm xã hội chủ nghĩa về lịch sử + Tuy nhiên, vẫn có một góc nhìn khác về lịch sử. Nó đã khá thành công và lâu nay nhận được sự ủng hộ của các học giả phương Tây và đại diện từ phía Nam toàn cầu. Đó là quan điểm lịch sử theo xã hội chủ nghĩa và Mác-xít. ![image](assets/vi/013.webp) @@ -244,7 +254,7 @@ Phân tích này phản ánh một sự hiểu lầm về giá trị thặng dư ### Cuộc Cách mạng Công nghiệp dưới lăng kính khác -Thực tế, phân tích của Mác đã bóp méo thực tế lịch sử của cuộc Cách mạng Công nghiệp. Ludwig von Mises đã làm rõ vấn đề này trong tác phẩm kinh tế học của mình [_Hành động của con người - Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm) (đặc biệt là chương có tiêu đề [Diễn giải phổ biến về Cách mạng Công nghiệp - Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) cũng như trong một loạt bài giảng được xuất bản dưới tiêu đề: [_Chính sách kinh tế: Những suy ngẫm cho hôm nay và ngày mai - Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Và cũng đáng đọc là tác phẩm _Tâm lý chống Chủ nghĩa Tư bản - The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality_ [ở đây](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) và [ở đây](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). +Thực tế, phân tích của Mác đã bóp méo thực tế lịch sử của cuộc Cách mạng Công nghiệp. Ludwig von Mises đã làm rõ vấn đề này trong tác phẩm kinh tế học của mình [_Hành động của con người - Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action) (đặc biệt là chương có tiêu đề [Diễn giải phổ biến về Cách mạng Công nghiệp - Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)) cũng như trong một loạt bài giảng được xuất bản dưới tiêu đề: [_Chính sách kinh tế: Những suy ngẫm cho hôm nay và ngày mai - Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm). (Và cũng đáng đọc là tác phẩm _Tâm lý chống Chủ nghĩa Tư bản - The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality_ [ở đây](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) và [ở đây](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)). ![hình ảnh](assets/vi/014.webp) Mises giải thích rằng công việc trong các nhà máy, mặc dù khốn khổ theo tiêu chuẩn của chúng ta, nhưng lại là cơ hội tốt nhất có thể cho người lao động thời bấy giờ. @@ -293,7 +303,9 @@ Kết luận của chương này, sự bùng nổ kinh tế và văn hóa của :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Trong chương cuối cùng của _Anatomy of the State - Giải phẫu Nhà nước_, Murray Rothbard đề xuất một lý thuyết về lịch sử. Chương rất ngắn này có tiêu đề: Lịch sử, một cuộc đua giữa quyền lực nhà nước và quyền lực xã hội. Theo Rothbard, lịch sử có thể được hiểu là một cuộc xung đột vĩnh viễn giữa hai nguyên tắc cơ bản: +### Quyền lực nhà nước so với quyền lực xã hội + +Trong chương cuối cùng của _[Anatomy of the State](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state) - Giải phẫu Nhà nước_, Murray Rothbard đề xuất một lý thuyết về lịch sử. Chương rất ngắn này có tiêu đề: Lịch sử, một cuộc đua giữa quyền lực nhà nước và quyền lực xã hội. Theo Rothbard, lịch sử có thể được hiểu là một cuộc xung đột vĩnh viễn giữa hai nguyên tắc cơ bản: ![image](assets/vi/017.webp) @@ -330,7 +342,7 @@ Từ thế kỷ 17 đến thế kỷ 19, ở nhiều quốc gia phương Tây, > Trong thế kỷ này, loài người đối mặt, một lần nữa, với sự cai trị ác liệt của Nhà nước; quyền lực sáng tạo của con người giờ đây đã bị Nhà nước tịch thu và bóp méo cho mục đích của chính nó. -Sau tất cả, như thế nào là một xã hội tự do? Đó là một xã hội không có độc quyền. Trong công trình triết học chính trị của mình, _Đạo đức của Tự do - Ethics of Liberty_ (1982), Rothbard trả lời: "một xã hội mà không có sự khả thi nào về mặt pháp lý để xâm phạm cưỡng ép đối với cá nhân hoặc quyền sở hữu của một người." Đó là lý do tại sao, theo ông, triết học chính trị, phải định rõ nguyên tắc của một xã hội công bằng, được thu hẹp thành chỉ còn một câu hỏi duy nhất: "Ai là chủ sở hữu hợp pháp của cái gì?" +Sau tất cả, như thế nào là một xã hội tự do? Đó là một xã hội không có độc quyền. Trong công trình triết học chính trị của mình, _Đạo đức của Tự do - [Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_ (1982), Rothbard trả lời: "một xã hội mà không có sự khả thi nào về mặt pháp lý để xâm phạm cưỡng ép đối với cá nhân hoặc quyền sở hữu của một người." Đó là lý do tại sao, theo ông, triết học chính trị, phải định rõ nguyên tắc của một xã hội công bằng, được thu hẹp thành chỉ còn một câu hỏi duy nhất: "Ai là chủ sở hữu hợp pháp của cái gì?" > ![image](assets/vi/019.webp) Đối với Rothbard, trật tự xã hội có thể tồn tại nếu nó là sản phẩm của sự phổ biến các quy trình hợp đồng cho việc tự do trao đổi quyền sở hữu, bằng cách tư nhân hóa tất cả các hoạt động kinh tế và thậm chí các chức năng mang tính chủ quyền quốc gia (như ngân hàng trung ương, tòa án) và bằng cách thúc đẩy sự cạnh tranh giữa các cơ quan bảo vệ. @@ -350,6 +362,8 @@ Và ông thêm vào: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### Di sản của nền dân chủ Athens + Trải nghiệm của nền dân chủ Athens đã để lại dấu ấn lâu dài trong lịch sử tư tưởng chính trị và tiếp tục truyền cảm hứng cho các lý tưởng về dân chủ và sự tham gia của công dân trong thế giới ngày nay. ![image](assets/vi/020.webp) @@ -443,6 +457,8 @@ Cách duy nhất để chúng ta có để tiếp cận sự thật là phản b :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### Một đế chế đa văn hóa + Đế chế La Mã là một thực thể đa văn hóa rộng lớn. Vào thời kỳ đỉnh cao, khoảng năm 117 SCN, đó là một quốc gia đa dân tộc và đa ngôn ngữ: - Ở phía tây, nó mở rộng từ Đại Anh (nước Anh ngày nay) đến Tây Ban Nha, đi qua Gaul (nước Pháp ngày nay) và phía bắc của Châu Phi. @@ -548,6 +564,8 @@ Khẳng định rằng pháp luật không thể chỉ giới hạn trong các :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### Suy tàn và sụp đổ + Tại sao La Mã lại suy tàn và cuối cùng đã sụp đổ? Nhiều người cho rằng Đế chế La Mã sụp đổ đột ngột do các cuộc tấn công xâm lược của những bộ tộc man rợ. Tuy nhiên, nguyên nhân sự sụp đổ của Đế chế La Mã phải được tìm thấy sớm hơn, trong chủ nghĩa đế quốc và các chính sách toàn trị của nhà nước đối với kinh tế và tiền tệ. @@ -622,6 +640,8 @@ Và ông thêm rằng: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### Nguồn gốc Kitô giáo của tự do cá nhân + Ý tưởng về tự do trong Kitô giáo đã được phát triển trong thần học thời Trung Cổ, từ Thánh Augustine vào thế kỷ thứ 4, đến Thánh Thomas Aquinas vào thế kỷ thứ 13. Vậy, ý tưởng này là gì? ![image](assets/vi/037.webp) @@ -674,6 +694,8 @@ Theo Thánh Thomas: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### Sự tự chủ của lý trí + Trong thời Trung Cổ, lý trí và đức tin cạnh tranh với nhau trong việc tiếp cận chân lý. Vào thế kỷ XIII, theo sau Abélard và Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas đã chọn bảo vệ quyền của lý trí và sự tự chủ của nó so với đức tin. ![image](assets/vi/040.webp) @@ -713,6 +735,8 @@ Do đó, chủ nghĩa duy lý tôn giáo đã chiến thắng hoàn toàn trư :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### Hệ thống thần quyền-chính trị + Trong thời Trung Cổ, Giáo hội và các quốc vương Kitô giáo đã kế thừa một mô hình chính trị từ Đế chế La Mã, mà các nhà sử học gọi là hệ thống thần quyền-chính trị, có nghĩa là một hệ thống nơi quyền lực là thiêng liêng, tức là, nơi lãnh đạo chính trị cũng là một nhà lãnh đạo tôn giáo. Đây là lý do tại sao đặc trung của các xã hội Trung Cổ là sự đồng nhất về chính trị và tôn giáo. Quyền lực chính trị xây dựng tính hợp pháp, quyền hạn, và sự thống nhất dựa trên niềm tin Kitô giáo (hoặc Hồi giáo). Nó tự coi mình là người bảo vệ của trật tự văn hóa và tôn giáo và coi những ai lệch lạc khỏi sự đồng nhất này là những kẻ ngoại đạo. Trong bối cảnh này, mặc dù một sự khoan dung nhất định có thể được nhượng bộ cho những người tách rời khỏi tầm nhìn văn hóa chung (như người Do Thái), không có quyền tự do tư tưởng nào được công nhận cho họ. Phải đến cuối thời Trung Cổ, với việc chinh phục châu Mỹ, vấn đề về quyền tự do dân sự trở thành một thách thức quan trọng đối với Giáo hội và triết lý pháp quyền đầu tiên khẳng định và bảo vệ quyền tự do cá nhân, hợp pháp hóa sự đa nguyên và lên án sự ép buộc của nhà nước cũng đã xuất hiện. @@ -751,6 +775,8 @@ Cám dỗ thần quyền của Giáo hội cũng va chạm với lý thuyết "q :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### Con người được tạo ra theo hình ảnh của Chúa + Tư tưởng cổ đại đã đặt con người dưới sự chi phối của một vũ trụ thần thánh, tức là, một vũ trụ hoàn hảo mà con người chỉ là một phần nhỏ. Ngược lại, chủ nghĩa độc thần khẳng định giá trị vô cùng cao của con người so với thiên nhiên, bởi con người được tạo ra theo hình ảnh của Chúa. Điểm cốt lõi này là nguồn gốc của một cuộc cách mạng đạo đức thực sự. Kinh Thánh khẳng định giá trị thiêng liêng và vô hạn của mỗi con người. Đây là lý do tại sao đạo đức Kinh Thánh thay đổi mối quan hệ của chúng ta với cái ác. Nó mang lại một sự nhạy cảm sắc bén và chưa từng có đối với sự đau khổ của con người. Do đó, nó khuyến khích chúng ta coi những điều ác, đặc biệt là những điều ác đối với người khác, người yếu đuối, người vô tội, là bất thường và không thể chịu đựng được. Những điều ác mà trước đấy vẫn được chấp nhận, nay đã trở nên không thể dung thứ được. @@ -789,6 +815,8 @@ Vấn đề của người dân bản địa là vết nứt đầu tiên của :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### Kitô giáo và nền kinh tế tự do + Chúng ta đã thấy rằng Kitô giáo đặt ra một nghĩa vụ đạo đức đối với mọi người là phải góp phần cải thiện thế giới. Thiên Chúa muốn con người được hạnh phúc nhưng không muốn thực hiện điều đó thay cho họ. Do đó, người Kitô giáo phải chiến đấu chống lại cái ác về mặt đạo đức, yêu thương người hàng xóm, giúp đỡ nạn nhân, nói chung, làm việc vì một thế giới công bằng và nhân ái hơn. Liệu Chủ nghĩa Tư bản, tức là nền kinh tế tự do dựa trên quyền tư hữu và tự do hợp đồng, có tương thích với nghĩa vụ Kitô giáo không? Một phần câu trả lời nằm ở việc Chủ nghĩa Tư bản bắt nguồn trong một bối cảnh tôn giáo, trước cả cuộc cải cách Tin lành. Phần khác của câu trả lời bao gồm việc quan sát thực tế rằng Chủ nghĩa Tư bản là phương tiện tốt nhất để cải thiện điều kiện vật chất và đạo đức của cá nhân. Chỉ có một nền kinh tế tự do, dựa trên quyền sở hữu và sự hợp tác tự nguyện, mới có khả năng giúp mọi người thoát khỏi cảnh nghèo đói một cách bền vững. @@ -857,6 +885,8 @@ Hơn nữa, nếu có hai loại tiền tệ khác nhau được công nhận h :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### Chiến tranh tôn giáo và thời kỳ Khai Sáng + Từ thời kỳ Phục Hưng, châu Âu đã bị tàn phá bởi các cuộc chiến tranh tôn giáo. Do đó, lòng khoan dung trở thành một trong những trận chiến lớn của thời kỳ Khai Sáng. ![image](assets/vi/050.webp) @@ -894,7 +924,7 @@ Trong _Bức thư thứ Mười_, "Về Thương mại", Voltaire mô tả tâm ### Sự thật đòi hỏi tự do -Tuy nhiên, nước Pháp không thiếu những tâm hồn vĩ đại. Ít ai biết rằng Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Nam tước de Laulne trước khi trở thành Tổng kiểm soát Tài chính dưới thời Louis XVI, là một nhà tư tưởng hàng đầu. Ông là tác giả của một luận án xuất sắc về kinh tế chính trị, _Suy ngẫm về sự hình thành và phân phối của cải - Réflexions la formation et la distribution des richesses_ (1766), xuất bản trước _Sự giàu có của các Quốc gia - The Wealth of Nations_ của Adam Smith (1776). +Tuy nhiên, nước Pháp không thiếu những tâm hồn vĩ đại. Ít ai biết rằng Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Nam tước de Laulne trước khi trở thành Tổng kiểm soát Tài chính dưới thời Louis XVI, là một nhà tư tưởng hàng đầu. Ông là tác giả của một luận án xuất sắc về kinh tế chính trị, _Suy ngẫm về sự hình thành và phân phối của cải - Réflexions la formation et la distribution des richesses_ (1766), xuất bản trước _Sự giàu có của các Quốc gia - [The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ của Adam Smith (1776). ![image](assets/vi/052.webp) Những tác phẩm đầu tiên của ông cho thấy sự cam kết của ông với triết lý của Thời kỳ Khai sáng. Năm 1754, ông xuất bản _Những bức thư về sự khoan dung dân sự - Lettres sur la tolérance civile_ và vào năm 1757, một số bài viết được viết cho _Bách khoa toàn thư - Encyclopédie_ của Diderot và d'Alembert. @@ -913,6 +943,8 @@ Nói cách khác, khoan dung không có nghĩa là thù địch với tôn giáo :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### Nguồn gốc của Chủ nghĩa Tự do kinh tế + Chủ nghĩa Tự do kinh tế thường được liên kết với truyền thống Anglo-Saxon bắt nguồn từ Adam Smith, đối lập với "Chủ nghĩa Tự do chính trị," được cho là bắt nguồn từ thời kỳ Khai sáng của châu Âu lục địa, đặc biệt là ở Pháp. Quan điểm này không chính xác. ![image](assets/vi/053.webp) @@ -974,6 +1006,8 @@ Nói ngắn gọn, nếu mọi người có thể tự do theo đuổi lợi íc :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### Ba sự kiện đã thay đổi lịch sử + Năm 1776 thường bị bỏ qua trong các cuốn sách giáo khoa lịch sử. Nhưng tại ba quốc gia, Pháp, Scotland, và Bắc Mỹ, một số sự kiện đã để lại dấu ấn không thể phai mờ trong lịch sử của tự do. ### Sự thất sủng của Turgot @@ -1016,7 +1050,7 @@ CĐây cũng là một luận văn triết học khi nó chứng minh rằng tra ### Bản tuyên ngôn cho tự do ở Mỹ -Năm 1776, một người Anh tên là Thomas Paine đã xuất bản ở Mỹ một cuốn sách nhỏ với lời chỉ trích gay gắt về chế độ quân chủ Anh và ủng hộ sự độc lập của các thuộc địa Mỹ, cuốn sách có tên là _Lẽ thường - Common Sense_. +Năm 1776, một người Anh tên là Thomas Paine đã xuất bản ở Mỹ một cuốn sách nhỏ với lời chỉ trích gay gắt về chế độ quân chủ Anh và ủng hộ sự độc lập của các thuộc địa Mỹ, cuốn sách có tên là _Lẽ thường - [Common Sense](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)_. ![image](assets/vi/059.webp) @@ -1076,6 +1110,8 @@ Bàn tay vô hình nổi tiếng này minh họa ý tưởng rằng cạnh tranh :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### Sự thế tục hóa và xã hội hiện đại + Điều mới mẻ lớn nhất trong thời kỳ hiện đại của lịch sử phương Tây là sự xuất hiện của một xã hội đã tổ chức bản thân mình ra khỏi sự phụ thuộc vào tôn giáo. Điều này không có nghĩa là niềm tin tôn giáo đã biến mất hay Thượng đế đã chết. Nhưng Thượng đế đã trở thành một vấn đề riêng tư, không còn lẫn lộn với các vấn đề chính trị. Tôn giáo không biến mất, nhưng mà giảm bớt vai trò chỉ đạo của nó. Nó trở thành một hệ thống niềm tin cá nhân. Quá trình thế tục hóa của xã hội phương Tây không diễn ra qua một đêm. Nó được chuẩn bị bởi các ý tưởng. Như thường lệ, triết học luôn tiên phong trong những thay đổi văn hóa lớn. @@ -1158,7 +1194,7 @@ Vào năm 1795, năm năm sau lần phát hành đầu tiên, tiền giấy đã Với Rousseau và Robespierre, người Pháp muốn tin rằng Quốc gia hoặc ý chí chung có quyền lực không giới hạn và biện minh cho mọi việc. Vì là nhân dân cầm quyền, nên người ta kết luận rằng họ có mọi quyền. Rõ ràng có một sự mâu thuẫn giữa các nguyên tắc lớn của Cách mạng và các phương tiện được dùng để hiện thực hoá chúng. -Đây cũng là ý nghĩa của nhận xét bởi Friedrich Hayek trong cuốn sách của ông _Hiến pháp Tự do - The Constitution of Liberty_: +Đây cũng là ý nghĩa của nhận xét bởi Friedrich Hayek trong cuốn sách của ông _Hiến pháp Tự do - [The Constitution of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)_: > Yếu tố quyết định làm cho nỗ lực của Cách mạng nhằm thúc đẩy tự do cá nhân trở nên vô ích là vì nó tạo ra ảo tưởng rằng, khi mọi quyền lực đã được trao cho nhân dân, mọi biện pháp phòng ngừa nhằm chống lại sự lạm dụng quyền lực này trở nên không cần thiết. @@ -1172,6 +1208,8 @@ Với Rousseau và Robespierre, người Pháp muốn tin rằng Quốc gia ho :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### Tự do cổ đại so với tự do hiện đại + Theo Benjamin Constant, tự do, trong xã hội hiện đại của chúng ta, không thể được hiểu theo cách của các xã hội cổ đại như là sự tham gia trực tiếp vào các công việc của thành phố. ![image](assets/vi/070.webp) @@ -1179,14 +1217,14 @@ Theo Benjamin Constant, tự do, trong xã hội hiện đại của chúng ta, ### Tự do trong đời sống riêng tư Trong thời cổ đại, cá nhân có quyền lực tối cao trong các vấn đề công cộng, nhưng lại là nô lệ trong tất cả mọi mối quan hệ riêng tư. Việc hy sinh tự do cá nhân được bù đắp bằng quyền tham gia chính trị: quyền trực tiếp thực hiện một phần của chủ quyền, quyền thảo luận tại quảng trường công cộng, quyền bỏ phiếu về luật pháp, quyền tuyên bố phán quyết, quyền đánh giá và xét xử các quan chức. Đó là tự do chính trị và nó mang tính tập thể: -> Tự do của người cổ đại bao gồm sự tham gia tích cực và liên tục vào quyền lực tập thể. Ngược lại, tự do của chúng ta phải bao gồm việc thưởng thức sự độc lập của cá nhân một cách yên bình; do đó, chúng ta phải gắn bó nhiều hơn với sự độc lập cá nhân so với người cổ đại. (_Về Tự do của người cổ đại so với người hiện đại - On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_ (1819)) +> Tự do của người cổ đại bao gồm sự tham gia tích cực và liên tục vào quyền lực tập thể. Ngược lại, tự do của chúng ta phải bao gồm việc thưởng thức sự độc lập của cá nhân một cách yên bình; do đó, chúng ta phải gắn bó nhiều hơn với sự độc lập cá nhân so với người cổ đại. (_Về Tự do của người cổ đại so với người hiện đại - [On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)) ![image](assets/vi/071.webp) Tự do hiện đại là tự do dân sự, bao gồm tự do kinh tế và dựa trên quyền riêng tư. Đó là quyền không phải chịu sự chuyên quyền tuỳ tiện, quyền tự do ngôn luận, quyền tự do hội họp, quyền tự do di chuyển, quyền tự do tôn giáo, và quyền tự do kinh doanh. Không có tự do nếu không có khả năng lựa chọn lối sống và giá trị của bản thân, do đó không có tự do nếu không có khả năng tách khỏi cộng đồng và do đó không có tự do nếu không có sự giới hạn quyền lực của Nhà nước để đảm bảo sự tồn tại của không gian riêng tư này. Đó là loại tự do mà người Mỹ gọi là quyền dân sự. Định nghĩa về tự do này được tìm thấy trong tác phẩm John Stuart Mill: -> Tự do duy nhất xứng đáng với cái tên đó, là tự do theo đuổi điều tốt lành của chính mình theo cách của mình, miễn là chúng ta không cố gắng tước đoạt của người khác hoặc cản trở nỗ lực của họ để đạt được nó. (...) Nhân loại thu được nhiều lợi ích hơn bằng cách để mỗi người sống theo cách mà họ cảm thấy phù hợp hơn là ép buộc họ phải sống theo cách mà người khác cho là tốt. (_Bàn về Tự do - On Liberty_, 1859) +> Tự do duy nhất xứng đáng với cái tên đó, là tự do theo đuổi điều tốt lành của chính mình theo cách của mình, miễn là chúng ta không cố gắng tước đoạt của người khác hoặc cản trở nỗ lực của họ để đạt được nó. (...) Nhân loại thu được nhiều lợi ích hơn bằng cách để mỗi người sống theo cách mà họ cảm thấy phù hợp hơn là ép buộc họ phải sống theo cách mà người khác cho là tốt. (_Bàn về Tự do - [On Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_, 1859) ![image](assets/vi/072.webp) @@ -1222,6 +1260,8 @@ Nói cách khác, trong một xã hội tự do, cần thiết phải xác đị :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### Tocqueville và chủ nghĩa cá nhân dân chủ + Alexis de Tocqueville là một người quan sát sắc sảo về dân chủ và là một nhà phê bình của chủ nghĩa cá nhân trong nền dân chủ. ![image](assets/vi/074.webp) @@ -1299,6 +1339,8 @@ Kết luận của Bastiat: :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### Phê phán của thế kỷ 19 + Vào thế kỷ 19, phê phán về Chủ nghĩa Tư bản đã nổi lên, đặc biệt là phê phán từ Mác. ![image](assets/vi/078.webp) @@ -1331,6 +1373,8 @@ Theo Mác, cách mạng chính trị là một ảo tưởng, miễn là nó kh :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### Phản hồi của trường phái Áo + Trường phái kinh tế học Áo, được Carl Menger sáng lập vào cuối thế kỷ 19, đã phản đối các lý thuyết của Karl Mác ngay từ đầu. ![image](assets/vi/081.webp) @@ -1385,7 +1429,7 @@ Các nhà Mác-xít tin rằng Chủ nghĩa Xã hội, một hệ thống kinh t ![image](assets/vi/085.webp) -Ngay từ năm 1922, trong cuốn sách _Chủ nghĩa Xã hội - Socialism,_ Ludwig von Mises đã chứng minh rằng Chủ nghĩa Xã hội sẽ dẫn đến tình trạng khan hiếm hàng hoá trên diện rộng, vì các nhà hoạch định trung ương sẽ không thể thực hiện các tính toán kinh tế chính xác nếu không có hệ thống giá cả do thị trường cung cấp. +Ngay từ năm 1922, trong cuốn sách _Chủ nghĩa Xã hội - [Socialism](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises),_ Ludwig von Mises đã chứng minh rằng Chủ nghĩa Xã hội sẽ dẫn đến tình trạng khan hiếm hàng hoá trên diện rộng, vì các nhà hoạch định trung ương sẽ không thể thực hiện các tính toán kinh tế chính xác nếu không có hệ thống giá cả do thị trường cung cấp. ## Con đường dẫn đến chế độ nô lệ @@ -1393,7 +1437,9 @@ Ngay từ năm 1922, trong cuốn sách _Chủ nghĩa Xã hội - Socialism,_ Lu :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -Lo lắng trước sự gia tăng can thiệp của chính phủ vào nền kinh tế ở các nền dân chủ phương Tây, Hayek đã viết _Con đường dẫn đến chế độ nô lệ - The Road to Serfdom_ như một phê bình triết học về chủ nghĩa tập thể, dù là từ cánh hữu hay cánh tả. Với hàng triệu bản được bán nhờ vào sự quảng bá của _Reader’s Digest_, cuốn sách này đã tạo nên danh tiếng của Hayek tại Hoa Kỳ. +### Lời cảnh báo của Hayek chống lại chủ nghĩa tập thể + +Lo lắng trước sự gia tăng can thiệp của chính phủ vào nền kinh tế ở các nền dân chủ phương Tây, Hayek đã viết _Con đường dẫn đến chế độ nô lệ - [The Road to Serfdom](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)_ như một phê bình triết học về chủ nghĩa tập thể, dù là từ cánh hữu hay cánh tả. Với hàng triệu bản được bán nhờ vào sự quảng bá của _Reader’s Digest_, cuốn sách này đã tạo nên danh tiếng của Hayek tại Hoa Kỳ. ![image](assets/vi/086.webp) @@ -1436,13 +1482,15 @@ Các lãnh đạo Phát xít chỉ đơn giản là kế thừa các diễn ngô :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### Cuộc cách mạng Keynes + Chủ nghĩa Tư bản thường bị cáo buộc là nguồn gốc của những mệnh lệnh như: "chúng ta phải luôn sản xuất ngày càng nhiều hơn," hoặc của công thức: "tiêu dùng tốt cho tăng trưởng." Tuy nhiên, những ý tưởng này không phát sinh từ Chủ nghĩa Tư bản truyền thống mà từ Chủ nghĩa Keynes, một học thuyết đã thống trị lĩnh vực khoa học kinh tế và giới chính trị kể từ những năm 1930. ![image](assets/vi/088.webp) ### Phân tích cuộc Đại suy thoái năm 1929 -Xuất bản vào năm 1936, cuốn sách của John Maynard Keynes: _Lý thuyết chung về việc làm, lãi suất và tiền tệ - The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money_, đã tạo nên một cuộc cách mạng. Tìm hiểu về nguyên nhân của Đại suy thoái và cách để thoát khỏi nó, ông mô tả một mô hình kinh tế mới, thứ đã thu hút sự ủng hộ của nhiều nhà kinh tế học và chính trị gia. +Xuất bản vào năm 1936, cuốn sách của John Maynard Keynes: _Lý thuyết chung về việc làm, lãi suất và tiền tệ - [The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)_, đã tạo nên một cuộc cách mạng. Tìm hiểu về nguyên nhân của Đại suy thoái và cách để thoát khỏi nó, ông mô tả một mô hình kinh tế mới, thứ đã thu hút sự ủng hộ của nhiều nhà kinh tế học và chính trị gia. ![image](assets/vi/089.webp) @@ -1482,7 +1530,7 @@ Bắt đầu từ năm 1958, một chính sách nhằm tái cấu trúc nền ki ![image](assets/vi/094.webp) -Trong _Tội lỗi về tiền tệ của phương Tây - Le péché monétaire de l’Occident_, vào năm 1971, Rueff viết: +Trong _[Tội lỗi về tiền tệ của phương Tây](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west) - Le péché monétaire de l’Occident_, vào năm 1971, Rueff viết: > Chính thâm hụt ngân sách đã làm con người mất tự do @@ -1499,6 +1547,8 @@ Vào năm 1976, ông một lần nữa tấn công Chủ nghĩa Keynes trong m :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### Tiền tệ và nền văn minh + Tiền tệ là công cụ đã giúp loài người vượt lên trên hệ thống kinh tế dùng hàng đổi hàng, tiết kiệm và phối hợp trên quy mô lớn thông qua thị trường. Nó đã làm cho chuyên môn hóa lao động, lợi thế cạnh tranh, lợi ích từ thương mại và tính toán kinh tế trở nên khả thi. Không quá khi nói rằng: nếu không có tiền tệ sẽ không có nền văn minh hiện đại. ### Vàng là tiêu chuẩn toàn cầu @@ -1544,7 +1594,7 @@ Vào tháng 2 năm 1965, trong một cuộc họp báo trên truyền hình, Tư ### Một thị trường tiền tệ không có sự độc quyền của nhà nước là khả thi -Vào năm 1976, Hayek đã đề xuất một giải pháp thay thế cho độc quyền của Nhà nước trong việc tạo ra tiền tệ: sự cạnh tranh giữa các loại tiền tệ. Trong cuốn sách của mình, _Sự phi quốc gia hoá của tiền tệ - The Denationalization of Money_, ông đã tưởng tượng về một thị trường tiền tệ không có độc quyền của Nhà nước, nơi mà nhiều đồng tiền tư nhân tồn tại. Việc tạo ra và quản lý các loại tiền tệ khác nhau bởi các thực thể tư nhân sẽ cho phép các cá nhân lựa chọn đồng tiền ổn định và đáng tin cậy nhất, từ đó khuyến khích sự cạnh tranh và kỷ luật giữa các nhà phát hành. +Vào năm 1976, Hayek đã đề xuất một giải pháp thay thế cho độc quyền của Nhà nước trong việc tạo ra tiền tệ: sự cạnh tranh giữa các loại tiền tệ. Trong cuốn sách của mình, _Sự phi quốc gia hoá của tiền tệ - [The Denationalization of Money](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_, ông đã tưởng tượng về một thị trường tiền tệ không có độc quyền của Nhà nước, nơi mà nhiều đồng tiền tư nhân tồn tại. Việc tạo ra và quản lý các loại tiền tệ khác nhau bởi các thực thể tư nhân sẽ cho phép các cá nhân lựa chọn đồng tiền ổn định và đáng tin cậy nhất, từ đó khuyến khích sự cạnh tranh và kỷ luật giữa các nhà phát hành. ![image](assets/vi/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/zh-Hans.md b/courses/phi101/zh-Hans.md index 18a35c61139..98ad586eb7f 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/zh-Hans.md +++ b/courses/phi101/zh-Hans.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### 课程介绍 + 欢迎来到 PHI101 课程！ 本课程邀请您通过分析塑造自由的主要思想流派来探索自由的演变。您将发现自由的概念是如何在几个世纪中逐步构建的，无论是通过与权力的对抗还是合作，通过从古代到当代辩论的历史之旅。 @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### 为什么研究自由的历史？ + 为什么给这门课程命名为：自由的历史？因为我们需要理解观念与事件之间的关系，以更好地评判我们的时代并且明智行动。正是在过去，我们找到了更好理解自由是什么以及为什么我们必须珍视它的元素。 -> 当过去不再照亮未来时，精神就会在黑暗中行走（亚历克西·德·托克维尔 - 《论美国的民主》。） +> 当过去不再照亮未来时，精神就会在黑暗中行走（亚历克西·德·托克维尔 - 《[论美国的民主](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)》。） ![image](assets/zh-Hans/001.webp) @@ -104,7 +108,7 @@ objectives: 第二种哲学在如卢梭、罗伯斯庇尔或康德等作者中找到，他们体现了共和传统，其中普遍意志的主权是法律的真正来源。作为魁奈的同时代人，卢梭是一位反生理学派者。对他而言，立法者必须组织社会，就像机械师从惰性物质中发明机器一样。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/007.webp) -> “敢于承担建立一个民族的人，”卢梭说，“必须感到有能力改变，可以这么说，人性，将每个个体，他本身是一个完美且独立的整体，转变为更大整体的一部分，从这个整体中，这个个体以某种方式获得了他的生命和存在。”（_社会契约_） +> “敢于承担建立一个民族的人，”卢梭说，“必须感到有能力改变，可以这么说，人性，将每个个体，他本身是一个完美且独立的整体，转变为更大整体的一部分，从这个整体中，这个个体以某种方式获得了他的生命和存在。”（_[社会契约](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)_） 从这个角度看，立法者的使命是组织、修改，甚至如果他认为合适，废除财产。对卢梭而言，财产不是自然的，而是约定俗成的，就像社会本身一样。反过来，罗伯斯庇尔确立了原则：“财产是每个公民享有和处置法律保障给他的财物部分的权利。”没有自然的财产权；只有无限数量的可能和偶然的安排。 @@ -114,6 +118,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### 天意立法者的神话 + 当人们打开教科书时，巴斯夏特指出，人们了解到，如果没有权力的干预，人类将注定一事无成： > “只需随意打开一本哲学、政治或历史书籍，就可以看到这个观点在我们国家根深蒂固，这个观点源于古典学习并且是社会主义之母，即人类是一种惰性物质，从权力那里获得生命、组织、道德和财富；或者更糟，人类本身趋向于自我退化，只有通过立法者的神秘之手才能在这个斜坡上停下来。”（[_法律_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)）。 @@ -171,6 +177,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### 由胜利者书写的历史 + 众所周知，历史是由胜利者书写的。注意力往往集中在权力的征服上，集中在掌权者的生活上，以及他们与那些希望取而代之者之间的冲突上。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/010.webp) @@ -214,6 +222,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### 社会主义的历史观 + 然而，历史还有另一种观点。这是社会主义和马克思主义对历史的看法，长期以来得到了西方知识分子和全球南方代表的支持。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/013.webp) @@ -232,7 +242,7 @@ objectives: ### 对工业革命的质疑 -事实上，马克思主义分析扭曲了工业革命的历史现实。路德维希·冯·米塞斯在他的经济学论著[_人的行为_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm)中澄清了这一问题（特别是章节[工业革命的流行解释](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)），以及在一系列以[_经济政策：今天和明天的思考_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)为标题的讲座中发布。（同样值得一读的还有反资本主义心态[这里](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)和[这里](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)）。 +事实上，马克思主义分析扭曲了工业革命的历史现实。路德维希·冯·米塞斯在他的经济学论著[_人的行为_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)中澄清了这一问题（特别是章节[工业革命的流行解释](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)），以及在一系列以[_经济政策：今天和明天的思考_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)为标题的讲座中发布。（同样值得一读的还有反资本主义心态[这里](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf)和[这里](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm)）。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/014.webp) 米塞斯解释说，尽管按照我们的标准，工厂里的工作很悲惨，但对当时的工人来说，这代表了最好的可能机会。 @@ -278,7 +288,9 @@ objectives: :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -在《国家的解剖》（法语版译为《L’anatomie de l’Etat》，由Résurgence editions出版）的最后一章中，默里·罗斯巴德提出了一种历史理论。这个非常短的章节标题为：历史，国家权力与社会权力之间的竞赛。根据罗斯巴德的观点，历史可以被理解为两个基本原则之间的永恒冲突： +### 国家权力与社会权力 + +在《[国家的解剖](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)》（法语版译为《L’anatomie de l’Etat》，由Résurgence editions出版）的最后一章中，默里·罗斯巴德提出了一种历史理论。这个非常短的章节标题为：历史，国家权力与社会权力之间的竞赛。根据罗斯巴德的观点，历史可以被理解为两个基本原则之间的永恒冲突： ![image](assets/zh-Hans/017.webp) @@ -314,7 +326,7 @@ objectives: 从17世纪到19世纪，在许多西方国家，社会权力加速和自由、和平及物质福利的增加相对应。但罗斯巴德提醒我们，20世纪是国家权力复苏的标志，带来了严重的后果：奴役、战争和破坏的增加： > 在这个世纪，人类再次面临国家的恶性统治；国家现在配备了人类的创造力，被没收并为其自身的目的所扭曲。 -> 什么是自由社会？毕竟，它是一个没有垄断的社会。在他的政治哲学作品《自由的伦理》(1982)中，罗斯巴德回答说：“一个不存在对个人的人身或财产进行强制侵犯的法律可能性的社会。”这就是为什么，根据他的说法，政治哲学，必须定义一个公正社会的原则，归结为一个问题：“谁合法拥有什么？” +> 什么是自由社会？毕竟，它是一个没有垄断的社会。在他的政治哲学作品《[自由的伦理](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)》(1982)中，罗斯巴德回答说：“一个不存在对个人的人身或财产进行强制侵犯的法律可能性的社会。”这就是为什么，根据他的说法，政治哲学，必须定义一个公正社会的原则，归结为一个问题：“谁合法拥有什么？” > ![image](assets/zh-Hans/019.webp) 对于罗斯巴德来说，如果社会秩序是通过普遍化合同程序来生产的，通过私有化所有经济活动甚至是主权职能（中央银行、法院）并通过保护机构之间的竞争，社会秩序就可以维持。 @@ -335,6 +347,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### 雅典民主的遗产 + 雅典民主的经验在政治思想史上留下了持久的印记，并继续在今天的世界激发民主和公民参与的理想。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/020.webp) @@ -428,6 +442,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### 一个世界性的帝国 + 罗马帝国是一个广阔的世界性实体。在其鼎盛时期，约公元117年，它是一个庞大的多民族和多语言国家： - 在西部，它从大不列颠（今天的英格兰）延伸到西班牙，经过高卢（今天的法国）和北非。 @@ -526,6 +542,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### 衰落与崩溃 + 为什么罗马会衰落并最终倒下？许多人喜欢认为，罗马帝国是在野蛮人入侵的冲击下突然崩溃的。然而，罗马帝国崩溃的原因要早得多，可以追溯到帝国主义以及经济和货币的指令性管理。 @@ -599,6 +617,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### 个人自由的基督教根源 + 基督教对自由的观念在4世纪的圣奥古斯丁到13世纪的圣托马斯·阿奎那的中世纪神学中得到了发展。这个观念是什么？ ![image](assets/zh-Hans/037.webp) @@ -652,6 +672,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### 理性的自主 + 在中世纪，理性和信仰争夺真理的通道。继阿贝拉德和阿尔伯特大师之后，13世纪的托马斯·阿奎纳选择捍卫理性的权利及其相对于信仰的自主性。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/040.webp) @@ -691,6 +713,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### 神政-政治体系 + 在中世纪，教会和基督教君主国继承了来自罗马帝国的政治模式，历史学家称之为神政-政治体系，意味着一个权力被视为神圣的系统，即政治领导者也是宗教领袖。 这就是为什么中世纪社会以政教合一主义为特征。政治权力基于基督教（或伊斯兰教）信仰来确立其合法性、权威和统一性。它认为自己是文化和宗教正统的守护者，并将那些背离这种一致性的人视为社会弃儿。在这种背景下，即使可以对那些脱离共同文化视野的人（如犹太人）给予一定的宽容，也不会为他们承认多元主义的权利。直到中世纪末期，随着美洲的征服，教会才开始重视公民自由问题，并出现了第一种法哲学，这种哲学肯定并保护了个人自由，合法化了多元主义，并谴责了国家的强制行为。 @@ -729,6 +753,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### 按照上帝的形象创造的人 + 古代思想将人类置于神圣的宇宙之下，即，人类仅仅是一个完美宇宙的一部分。而一神论则主张人类相对于自然界拥有无限的超越价值，因为人是按照上帝的形象创造的。这一关键点是真正伦理革命的起源。圣经宣称每个人都拥有神圣且无限的价值。 这就是为什么圣经伦理改变了我们与邪恶的关系。它带来了对人类苦难的敏锐和前所未有的敏感性。因此，它鼓励我们将人类至今认为完全可以忍受的邪恶视为异常和无法忍受的，特别是对他人、对弱者、对无辜者的邪恶。 @@ -767,6 +793,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### 基督教与自由经济 + 我们已经看到，基督教对人们施加了一种道德责任，即努力改善世界。上帝希望人类幸福，但不想代替他实现他的美好。因此，基督徒有责任对抗道德邪恶，爱邻如己，帮助受害者，简而言之，为一个更加公正和人道的世界而努力。资本主义，即基于私有财产和合同自由的自由经济，是否与基督教的责任相容？ 部分答案在于，资本主义起源于宗教背景，远在新教改革之前。答案的另一部分在于观察资本主义是改善个人物质和道德状况的最佳手段这一事实。只有基于财产权和自愿合作的自由经济，才能持续地使人们摆脱贫困。 @@ -835,6 +863,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### 宗教战争与启蒙运动 + 从文艺复兴时期开始，欧洲就被宗教战争所蹂躏。因此，宽容成为了启蒙时代的一大战役。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/050.webp) @@ -871,7 +901,7 @@ objectives: ### 真理需要自由 -然而，法国并不缺乏伟大的思想家。鲜为人知的是，安妮·罗伯特·雅克·图尔戈，拉乌讷男爵首先是一位杰出的思想家，后成为路易十六时期的财政总管。他是政治经济学杰作《关于财富的形成和分配的思考》(1766)的作者，该作品早于亚当·斯密的《国富论》(1776)。 +然而，法国并不缺乏伟大的思想家。鲜为人知的是，安妮·罗伯特·雅克·图尔戈，拉乌讷男爵首先是一位杰出的思想家，后成为路易十六时期的财政总管。他是政治经济学杰作《关于财富的形成和分配的思考》(1766)的作者，该作品早于亚当·斯密的《[国富论](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)》(1776)。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/052.webp) 他早期的著作反映了他对启蒙哲学的承诺。1754年，他发表了《关于民事宽容的信》, 1757年，为狄德罗和达朗贝尔的《百科全书》撰写了几篇文章。 @@ -890,6 +920,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### 经济自由主义的起源 + 经济自由主义常常与源自亚当·斯密的盎格鲁-撒克逊传统联系在一起，与之形成对比的是据说源自欧洲大陆启蒙运动的“政治自由主义”，特别是在法国。这种观点是不正确的。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/053.webp) @@ -951,6 +983,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### 改变历史的三个事件 + 1776年是历史教科书中经常被忽视的一年。但在三个国家，法国、苏格兰和北美，几件事件将在自由的历史上留下不可磨灭的印记。 ### 图尔戈的失宠 @@ -993,7 +1027,7 @@ objectives: ### 美国自由宣言 -1776年，一位名叫托马斯·潘恩的英国人在美国发表了一篇猛烈批评英国君主制并倡导美国殖民地独立的小册子：《常识》。 +1776年，一位名叫托马斯·潘恩的英国人在美国发表了一篇猛烈批评英国君主制并倡导美国殖民地独立的小册子：《[常识](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)》。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/059.webp) @@ -1053,6 +1087,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### 世俗化与现代社会 + 这个现代时期在西方历史上的伟大新奇之处在于，社会开始在宗教依赖之外自我组织。这并不意味着宗教信仰的消失或上帝的死亡。但上帝变成了一个私人问题，不再与政治事务混为一谈。宗教并没有消失，但其指导作用被废黜。它变成了一个个人信仰体系。 西方世界的世俗化并非一蹴而就。这是由思想准备的。通常，哲学处于重大文化变革的前沿。 @@ -1136,7 +1172,7 @@ objectives: 有了卢梭和罗伯斯庇尔，法国人想要相信国家或普遍意志拥有无限的权力并且可以证明一切。从人民治理的事实出发，人们得出了他们拥有所有权利的结论。这显然是革命的伟大原则与实现这些原则所采用的手段之间的矛盾。 -这也是弗里德里希·哈耶克在他的书《自由宪章》中所做评论的含义： +这也是弗里德里希·哈耶克在他的书《[自由宪章](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)》中所做评论的含义： > 使革命促进个人自由的努力徒劳无功的决定性因素是，它创造了一种幻觉，即所有权力都已交给人民，因此对这种权力的滥用采取的所有预防措施都变得不必要了。 @@ -1150,6 +1186,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### 古代自由与现代自由 + 根据本杰明·康斯坦特的说法，我们现代社会中的自由，不再能像古代社会那样理解为直接参与城市事务。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/070.webp) @@ -1158,7 +1196,7 @@ objectives: 在古代，个人在公共事务中是主权者，但在所有私人关系中都是奴役的。个人自由的牺牲通过使用政治权利得到了补偿：直接行使主权的各个部分的权利，参与公共广场的讨论，对法律进行投票，发表判决，评估和审判官员。这是一种政治性和集体性的自由： -> 古人的自由在于积极且持续地参与集体权力。而我们的自由，另一方面，必须包含在私人独立性的和平享受中；这意味着我们必须比古人更加依恋我们的个人独立性。（_论古人与现代人的自由_ (1819)） +> 古人的自由在于积极且持续地参与集体权力。而我们的自由，另一方面，必须包含在私人独立性的和平享受中；这意味着我们必须比古人更加依恋我们的个人独立性。（_[论古人与现代人的自由](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_ (1819)） ![image](assets/zh-Hans/071.webp) @@ -1166,7 +1204,7 @@ objectives: 这种自由的定义在约翰·斯图尔特·密尔中找到： -> 唯一值得这个名字的自由，是以我们自己的方式追求我们自己的幸福，只要我们不试图剥夺他人的幸福或阻碍他们获得幸福的努力。（...）通过让每个人按照他们认为合适的方式生活，人类获得的利益比强迫他们按照别人认为好的方式生活要多。（_论自由_，1859） +> 唯一值得这个名字的自由，是以我们自己的方式追求我们自己的幸福，只要我们不试图剥夺他人的幸福或阻碍他们获得幸福的努力。（...）通过让每个人按照他们认为合适的方式生活，人类获得的利益比强迫他们按照别人认为好的方式生活要多。（_[论自由](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)_，1859） ![image](assets/zh-Hans/072.webp) @@ -1202,6 +1240,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### 托克维尔与民主个人主义 + 亚历克西斯·德·托克维尔是民主制度的细致观察者和民主个人主义的批评者。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/074.webp) @@ -1277,6 +1317,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 19世纪的批判 + 正是在19世纪，资本主义的批评，特别是马克思主义的批评，出现了。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/078.webp) @@ -1309,6 +1351,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### 奥地利学派的回应 + 由卡尔·门格尔在19世纪末创立的奥地利经济学派，从一开始就反对卡尔·马克思的理论。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/081.webp) @@ -1363,7 +1407,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/zh-Hans/085.webp) -早在1922年，路德维希·冯·米塞斯在他的书《社会主义》中展示了社会主义将导致广泛的短缺，因为中央计划者在没有市场提供的价格体系的情况下无法进行准确的经济计算。 +早在1922年，路德维希·冯·米塞斯在他的书《[社会主义](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)》中展示了社会主义将导致广泛的短缺，因为中央计划者在没有市场提供的价格体系的情况下无法进行准确的经济计算。 ## 通往奴役之路 @@ -1371,7 +1415,9 @@ objectives: :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -由于对西方民主国家经济中政府干预主义的崛起感到警觉，哈耶克撰写了《通往奴役之路》作为对集体主义的哲学批评，无论是右翼还是左翼。这本书因《读者文摘》而发行了数百万册，极大地促进了哈耶克在美国的声望。 +### 哈耶克对集体主义的警告 + +由于对西方民主国家经济中政府干预主义的崛起感到警觉，哈耶克撰写了《[通往奴役之路](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)》作为对集体主义的哲学批评，无论是右翼还是左翼。这本书因《读者文摘》而发行了数百万册，极大地促进了哈耶克在美国的声望。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/086.webp) @@ -1414,13 +1460,15 @@ objectives: :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### 凯恩斯革命 + 资本主义经常被指责是“我们必须始终生产更多”或“消费有利于增长”这类命令的来源。然而，这些观点并非源自传统资本主义，而是源自凯恩斯主义，自1930年代以来，凯恩斯主义主导了经济科学领域和政治阶层。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/088.webp) ### 1929年危机的分析 -1936年出版的约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯的书《就业、利息和货币通论》一书横扫一切。它质疑大萧条的原因和摆脱困境的手段，描述了一个新的经济范式，这一范式转变了几代经济学家和政治家的思想。 +1936年出版的约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯的书《[就业、利息和货币通论](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)》一书横扫一切。它质疑大萧条的原因和摆脱困境的手段，描述了一个新的经济范式，这一范式转变了几代经济学家和政治家的思想。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/089.webp) @@ -1460,7 +1508,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/zh-Hans/094.webp) -在1971年的《西方的货币罪恶》中，鲁埃夫写道： +在1971年的《[西方的货币罪恶](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)》中，鲁埃夫写道： > 正是通过预算赤字，人们失去了自由。 @@ -1477,6 +1525,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### 货币与文明 + 货币是一种工具，它使人类能够超越物物交换，进行储蓄，并通过市场在大规模上进行协调。它使得劳动分工、比较优势、贸易收益、经济计算成为可能。没有货币，就没有现代文明。 ### 金作为全球标准 @@ -1522,7 +1572,7 @@ objectives: ### 一个没有国家垄断的货币市场是可能的 -1976年，哈耶克提出了一个替代国家对货币创造垄断的方案：货币之间的竞争。在他的书《为真正的货币竞争》（_货币的非国家化_）中，他设想了一个没有国家垄断的货币市场，其中存在多种私人货币。由私人实体创造和管理不同的货币将允许个人选择最稳定和可靠的货币，从而鼓励发行者之间的竞争和自律。 +1976年，哈耶克提出了一个替代国家对货币创造垄断的方案：货币之间的竞争。在他的书《为真正的货币竞争》（_[货币的非国家化](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_）中，他设想了一个没有国家垄断的货币市场，其中存在多种私人货币。由私人实体创造和管理不同的货币将允许个人选择最稳定和可靠的货币，从而鼓励发行者之间的竞争和自律。 ![image](assets/zh-Hans/100.webp) diff --git a/courses/phi101/zh-Hant.md b/courses/phi101/zh-Hant.md index 5cbf8d0ef26..27af40398a0 100644 --- a/courses/phi101/zh-Hant.md +++ b/courses/phi101/zh-Hant.md @@ -23,6 +23,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=be186f5a-9867-4132-bf3e-2212db365a4b::: +### 課程介紹 + 歡迎來到 PHI101！ 本課程邀請您透過分析塑造自由的主要思想流派來探索自由在歷史上的演變。透過從古代到當代辯論的歷史歷程，您將發現自由的概念在幾個世紀中是如何建構的，無論是反對權力還是與權力合作。 @@ -57,9 +59,11 @@ objectives: :::video id=d21788a4-3b99-48b7-ac1a-24d5913af893::: +### 為什麼要研究自由的歷史？ + 為什麼要將這門課程命名為：自由史？因為我們需要瞭解思想與事件之間的關係，以便更好地判斷我們的時代，並明智地行事。正是在過去，我們找到了Elements，從而更好地理解什麼是自由，以及我們必須珍惜自由的原因。 -> 當過去不再照亮未來，精神就會在黑暗中前行（Alexis de Tocqueville - _Democracy in America_）。 +> 當過去不再照亮未來，精神就會在黑暗中前行（Alexis de Tocqueville - _[Democracy in America](https://planb.academy/resources/books/de-la-democratie-en-amerique)_）。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/001.webp) 同時，Auguste Comte說：「只有了解了一門科學的歷史，才能充分了解它」。這個真理可以套用在自由的概念上。 @@ -113,7 +117,7 @@ objectives: ![image](assets/zh-Hant/007.webp) -> "盧梭說：「膽敢承諾建立一個民族的人，必須覺得自己有能力改變人類的本性，有能力把每一個本身就是一個完美而孤獨的整體的個人，變成一個更大整體的一部分，而這個個人的生命和存在，在某種程度上，就來自這個更大的整體。(《社會契約》) +> "盧梭說：「膽敢承諾建立一個民族的人，必須覺得自己有能力改變人類的本性，有能力把每一個本身就是一個完美而孤獨的整體的個人，變成一個更大整體的一部分，而這個個人的生命和存在，在某種程度上，就來自這個更大的整體。(《[社會契約](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-social-contract)》) 從這個角度來看，立法者的任務是組織、修改、甚至廢除財產，如果他認為財產是好的。對盧梭而言，財產不是自然的，而是傳統的，就像社會本身一樣。反過來，羅伯斯庇爾確立了這樣的原則：「財產是每個公民享有和處置法律保證給他的那部分物品的權利」。沒有自然的財產權；只有不定數目的可能與或然安排。 ## Frédéric Bastiat：生產與剝奪 @@ -122,6 +126,8 @@ objectives: :::video id=a18fd72d-34fd-41e5-a7db-770abdde79fa::: +### 天意立法者的迷思 + Bastiat 指出，當人們打開教科書，就會發現如果沒有權力的介入，人類注定會湮滅於無形： > 「只要幾乎隨手翻開一本哲學、政治或歷史書籍，就足以看到這種誕生於古典研究和社會主義之母的思想在我國是如何根深蒂固，即人類是一種惰性物質，從權力中接受生命、組織、道德和財富；--或者更糟的是，人類本身就有墮落的傾向，只是被立法者的神秘之手阻止在這個斜坡上」。([_The Law_](http://bastiat.org/fr/la_loi.html)). @@ -179,6 +185,8 @@ Bastiat 告訴我們，合法的掠奪仍有兩種形式： :::video id=72ae49f1-30b8-4d9c-ba2c-32f157954c88::: +### 由勝利者書寫的歷史 + 眾所周知，歷史是由勝利者書寫的。人們的注意力往往集中在權力的奪取、當權領導人的生活，以及與希望取而代之者對立的衝突上。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/010.webp) @@ -223,6 +231,8 @@ Bastiat 告訴我們，合法的掠奪仍有兩種形式： :::video id=01b9125f-6693-49ae-b7c9-07bc10a10c3d::: +### 社會主義的歷史觀 + 然而，另一種歷史觀點確實存在。這種觀點相當成功，長期受到西方知識份子和全球南方代表的支持。這就是社會主義和馬克思主義的歷史觀。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/013.webp) @@ -243,7 +253,7 @@ Bastiat 告訴我們，合法的掠奪仍有兩種形式： ### 工業革命的問題 -事實上，馬克思主義的分析扭曲了工業革命的歷史現實。路德維希‧馮‧米塞斯（Ludwig von Mises）在他的經濟學論文[_Human Action_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AHTDM.htm)中澄清了這個問題（請特別參閱標題為[Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)的章節），以及在以[_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)為題出版的一系列演講中。(另外值得一讀的《反資本主義心態》[這裡](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) 和 [這裡](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm))。 +事實上，馬克思主義的分析扭曲了工業革命的歷史現實。路德維希‧馮‧米塞斯（Ludwig von Mises）在他的經濟學論文[_Human Action_](https://planb.academy/resources/books/human-action)中澄清了這個問題（請特別參閱標題為[Popular Interpretation of the Industrial Revolution](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/AH/AH21.htm#inter2)的章節），以及在以[_Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and Tomorrow_](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/PE/PE_TDM.htm)為題出版的一系列演講中。(另外值得一讀的《反資本主義心態》[這裡](https://www.institutcoppet.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/La-Mentalit%C3%A9-anticapitaliste.pdf) 和 [這裡](http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Mises/MAC/MAC_TDM.htm))。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/014.webp) @@ -292,7 +302,9 @@ Mises 補充說，人類境況的改善因此得以實現，是因為資本的 :::video id=5ea889a5-8fc7-43a6-88a4-2404442bf52e::: -Murray Rothbard 在《國家解剖學》(法文譯名《L'anatomie de l'Etat》，由 Résurgence editions 出版)的最後一章中，提出了一種歷史理論。這一章很短，標題是：歷史，國家權力與社會權力之間的競賽。根據 Rothbard，歷史可以被理解為兩個基本原則之間的永恆衝突： +### 國家權力與社會權力 + +Murray Rothbard 在《[國家解剖學](https://planb.academy/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state)》(法文譯名《L'anatomie de l'Etat》，由 Résurgence editions 出版)的最後一章中，提出了一種歷史理論。這一章很短，標題是：歷史，國家權力與社會權力之間的競賽。根據 Rothbard，歷史可以被理解為兩個基本原則之間的永恆衝突： ![image](assets/zh-Hant/017.webp) @@ -332,7 +344,7 @@ Rothbard 認為，歷史不是一個線性的過程，而是在社會權力的 從17世紀到19世紀，在許多西方國家，都有社會權力加速發展的時期，也有自由、和平與物質福祉相應增加的時期。但羅斯巴德提醒我們，20世紀的標誌是國家權力的復甦，帶來了可怕的後果：奴役、戰爭和破壞的增加： > 在這個世紀，人類再次面臨國家的惡毒統治；國家現在擁有了人類的創造力，但卻為了自己的目的而被沒收和變質。 -> 畢竟什麼是自由社會？它是一個沒有壟斷的社會。在他的政治哲學著作_Ethics of Liberty_（1982年）中，Rothbard回答道：「一個在法律上不可能對個人的人身或財產進行強制侵略的社會」。這就是為什麼，根據他的看法，政治哲學必須定義公正社會的原則，而政治哲學可以歸結為一個問題：「誰合法擁有什麼？」 +> 畢竟什麼是自由社會？它是一個沒有壟斷的社會。在他的政治哲學著作_[Ethics of Liberty](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty)_（1982年）中，Rothbard回答道：「一個在法律上不可能對個人的人身或財產進行強制侵略的社會」。這就是為什麼，根據他的看法，政治哲學必須定義公正社會的原則，而政治哲學可以歸結為一個問題：「誰合法擁有什麼？」 > ![image](assets/zh-Hant/019.webp) 對 Rothbard 來說，如果社會秩序是自由 Exchange 產權的契約程序普遍化的產物，藉由私有化所有經濟活動，甚至主權功能 (中央銀行、法院)，並訴諸保護機構之間的競爭，社會秩序就能普遍存在。 @@ -352,6 +364,8 @@ Rothbard 認為，歷史不是一個線性的過程，而是在社會權力的 :::video id=08751358-5a23-48ef-9c30-6a810d165c75::: +### 雅典民主的遺產 + 雅典民主的經驗在政治思想史上留下了永恆的印記，並在今日世界繼續激勵著民主和公民參與的理想。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/020.webp) @@ -450,6 +464,8 @@ Jean-Pierre Vernant 則補充說： :::video id=ad8c92c1-5960-4607-b277-ce5e61e80b36::: +### 世界性的帝國 + 羅馬帝國是一個龐大的世界性實體。在公元 117 年左右的巔峰時期，它是一個巨大的多種族、多語言國家： @@ -557,6 +573,8 @@ Cicero 生於公元前 1 世紀，被認為是羅馬帝國時期拉丁語系最 :::video id=65ae0d54-7319-4913-b69a-5f5c842e40fa::: +### 衰落與崩潰 + 羅馬為何會衰落並最終滅亡？許多人認為羅馬帝國是在野蠻人入侵的衝擊下突然崩潰的。然而，羅馬帝國崩潰的原因可以在更早之前的帝國主義、經濟和貨幣政策中找到。 @@ -634,6 +652,8 @@ Philippe Fabry 總結： :::video id=c0dd7eb3-cacb-4614-9650-088436a352a8::: +### 個人自由的基督教根源 + 基督教的自由思想是在中世紀神學中發展起來的，從 4 世紀的聖奧古斯丁（Saint Augustine）到 13 世紀的聖托馬斯阿奎那（Saint Thomas Aquinas）。這個觀念是什麼？ ![image](assets/zh-Hant/037.webp) @@ -686,6 +706,8 @@ Philippe Fabry 總結： :::video id=49baeb92-3504-45a0-8e51-fab8ddceb1f2::: +### 理性的自主 + 在中世紀，理性與信仰為了獲得真理而競爭。繼阿貝拉爾德 (Abélard) 與艾伯特大帝 (Albert the Great)之後，托馬斯-阿奎那 (Thomas Aquinas) 在 13 世紀選擇捍衛理性的權利及其相對於信仰的自主性。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/040.webp) @@ -730,6 +752,8 @@ Philippe Fabry 總結： :::video id=a0027b3b-a40e-479e-94c8-420d20404966::: +### 神學政治體系 + 在中世紀，教會和基督教君主國承襲了羅馬帝國的政治模式，歷史學家稱之為神學政治體系，意指權力神聖的體系，也就是政治領袖同時也是宗教領袖。 這就是為什麼中世紀社會的特點是政治宗教一致。政治權力以基督教（或穆斯林）信仰為其合法性、權威性和統一性的基礎。它認為自己是文化與宗教正統的守護者，並將偏離這種一致性的人視為賤民。在此背景下，即使對於那些脫離共同文化視野的人（如猶太人）可以給予一定的寬容，但對於他們來說，多元化的權利是不可能被承認的。直到中世紀末期，隨著美洲被征服，公民自由的問題才成為教會的關鍵，並出現了第一種法律哲學，它肯定並保護個人自由，使多元化合法化，並譴責國家強迫。 @@ -771,6 +795,8 @@ Philippe Fabry 總結： :::video id=3d55d74e-195e-48f7-86ef-b4ceeb4ba77e::: +### 依神的形象所造的人 + 古代思想將人從屬於一個神聖的宇宙，也就是一個完美的宇宙，而人只是其中的一部分。另一方面，一神教主張人的價值無限優越於自然，因為人是按照神的形象被創造的。這個關鍵點是真正倫理革命的起源。聖經》肯定了每個人神聖且無限的價值。 這就是為什麼聖經倫理改變了我們與邪惡的關係。它對人類的苦難帶來了前所未有的敏銳度。因此，它鼓勵我們把人類在此之前認為完全可以忍受的惡行，特別是對他人、弱者、無辜者所做的惡行，視為不正常和無法忍受的。 @@ -811,6 +837,8 @@ Philippe Fabry 總結： :::video id=ad63fa9b-569b-460d-b221-5391a4e576d2::: +### 基督教與自由經濟 + 我們已經看到，基督教規定人們有道德責任為改善世界而努力。上帝希望人幸福，但不希望在人的位置上實現人的美好。因此，基督徒有責任與道德上的惡行作鬥爭、愛他們的鄰居、幫助受害者，簡而言之，就是為一個更公正、更人道的世界而努力。資本主義，也就是以私有財產與契約自由為基礎的自由經濟，是否與基督徒的責任相容？ 答案的一部分在於資本主義起源於宗教背景，遠早於新教改革。答案的另一部分是，資本主義是改善個人物質和道德狀況的最佳方式。只有以產權和自願合作為基礎的自由經濟，才有能力持續地讓人們脫離痛苦。 @@ -878,6 +906,8 @@ Oresme 強調，貨幣變更並不是簡單的重新分配遊戲，而是以犧 :::video id=e6a4005f-e732-48df-961a-d701ef4a777f::: +### 宗教戰爭與啟蒙運動 + 從文藝復興時期開始，歐洲就受到宗教戰爭的蹂躪。因此，寬容成為啟蒙運動中最重要的戰役之一。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/050.webp) @@ -918,7 +948,7 @@ Oresme 強調，貨幣變更並不是簡單的重新分配遊戲，而是以犧 ### 真理需要自由 -然而，法國並不缺乏偉大的思想家。安-羅伯特-雅克-杜爾戈（Anne Robert Jacques Turgot），羅納男爵（Baron de Laulne）在成為路易十六時期的財政總監前，首先是一位著名的思想家。他是政治經濟學名著_Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766)的作者，比亞當史密斯的_The Wealth of Nations_ (1776)還早。 +然而，法國並不缺乏偉大的思想家。安-羅伯特-雅克-杜爾戈（Anne Robert Jacques Turgot），羅納男爵（Baron de Laulne）在成為路易十六時期的財政總監前，首先是一位著名的思想家。他是政治經濟學名著_Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth_ (1766)的作者，比亞當史密斯的_[The Wealth of Nations](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-wealth-of-nations)_ (1776)還早。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/052.webp) @@ -940,6 +970,8 @@ Turgot 在他的信中提出了容忍的定義。容忍的意思是拒絕對錯 :::video id=bede59ca-934d-4120-b023-1b7d1d112ad7::: +### 經濟自由主義的起源 + 經濟自由主義通常與源自亞當‧斯密的盎格魯-撒克遜傳統相聯繫，與「政治自由主義」形成對比，後者據說源自歐洲大陸的啟蒙運動，尤其是在法國。這種觀點是不正確的。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/053.webp) @@ -1007,6 +1039,8 @@ Turgot 在他的信中提出了容忍的定義。容忍的意思是拒絕對錯 :::video id=433b758e-648f-4e13-8aba-3ac7d302f8b4::: +### 改變歷史的三個事件 + 1776 年是歷史教科書上經常被忽略的一年。但在法國、蘇格蘭和北美這三個國家，有幾件事會在自由的歷史上留下不可磨滅的印記。 ### 圖爾戈的恥辱 @@ -1049,7 +1083,7 @@ _Commerce and Government_ 包含了後來被稱為價值主觀性的理論，這 ### 美國自由宣言 -1776 年，一位名叫 Thomas Paine 的英國人在美國出版了一本惡毒的小冊子，批判英國君主制度，並鼓勵美國殖民者獨立：常識》。 +1776 年，一位名叫 Thomas Paine 的英國人在美國出版了一本惡毒的小冊子，批判英國君主制度，並鼓勵美國殖民者獨立：[常識](https://planb.academy/resources/books/common-sense)》。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/059.webp) @@ -1114,6 +1148,8 @@ Thomas Paine 透過他的小冊子，在美國革命和激發自由與民主的 :::video id=acf98b8e-b8df-45d5-86d7-f48a05c19995::: +### 世俗化與現代社會 + 西方歷史上這個現代時期最大的新奇之處，就是出現了一個在宗教依賴之外組織自己的社會。這並不意味著宗教信仰的消失或上帝的死亡。但上帝變成了私事，不再與政治事務混為一談。宗教並沒有消失，只是貶低了它的指導角色。它變成了個人信仰的系統。 西方世界的世俗化並非一朝一夕的事。它是由思想準備的。哲學往往處於重大文化變革的最前線。 @@ -1199,7 +1235,7 @@ Abbé Sieyès (1748-1836) 被認為是法國大革命之父。他是 _What is th 隨著盧梭和羅伯斯庇爾(Robespierre)的出現﹐法國人希望相信﹐國家或一般意願擁有無限的權力﹐並使一切合理化。由 於 人 民 實 行 管 治 ﹐ 因 而 得 出 了 人 民 擁 有 所 有 權 利 的 結 論 。大 革 命 的 偉 大 原 則 與 使 其 取 得 勝 利 的 方 法 之 間 明 顯 存 在 矛 盾 。 -此外，這也是海耶克（Friedrich Hayek）在其《自由憲法》（The Constitution of Liberty）一書中所說的意思： +此外，這也是海耶克（Friedrich Hayek）在其《[自由憲法](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty)》（The Constitution of Liberty）一書中所說的意思： > 使大革命在促進個人自由方面的努力徒勞無功的決定性因素是，大革命造成了一種錯覺，以為只要把所有權力都交給了人民，所有防止濫用權力的預防措施都變得沒有必要了。 # 遠景與衰退：從十九世紀到二十世紀 @@ -1212,6 +1248,8 @@ Abbé Sieyès (1748-1836) 被認為是法國大革命之父。他是 _What is th :::video id=1356c0eb-806d-4914-8885-0eada01d9580::: +### 古代自由與現代自由 + Benjamin Constant 認為，在現代社會中，自由不再能像古代社會一樣被理解為直接參與城市事務。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/070.webp) @@ -1220,14 +1258,14 @@ Benjamin Constant 認為，在現代社會中，自由不再能像古代社會 在古代，個人在公共事務上享有主權，但在所有私人關係上卻受到奴役。個人自由的犧牲是以使用政治權利來補償：直接行使主權的各個部分、在公共場合商議、投票通過法律、宣佈判決、評估和審判地方官的權利。這是一種政治和集體自由： -> 古人的自由是積極而持續地參與集體權力。另一方面，我們的自由必須包括和平地享有私人的獨立性；由此推論，我們必須比古人更重視個人的獨立性。(_On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns_(1819))。 +> 古人的自由是積極而持續地參與集體權力。另一方面，我們的自由必須包括和平地享有私人的獨立性；由此推論，我們必須比古人更重視個人的獨立性。(_[On the Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns](https://planb.academy/resources/books/benjamin-constant-de-la-liberte-des-anciens-compar)_(1819))。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/071.webp) 現代自由是公民自由，其中包括經濟自由，並且以隱私權為基礎。它是不受任何任意支配的權利，是表達、集會、行動、崇拜和工業的權利。沒有選擇個人生活方式和價值觀的可能性就沒有自由，因此沒有退出社會的可能性就沒有自由，因此沒有國家允許這種私人空間存在的限制就沒有自由。這種自由與美國人所說的民權是相對應的。 John Stuart Mill（約翰‧斯圖亞特‧米爾）中有這個自由的定義： -> 唯一值得稱讚的自由，就是以我們自己的方式追求我們自己的美好，只要我們不試圖剝奪他人的美好，或阻礙他人為獲得美好所做的努力。(......)讓每個人過自己認為合適的生活，比強迫他們過別人認為好的生活，更能讓人類獲益。(《論自由》，1859 年) +> 唯一值得稱讚的自由，就是以我們自己的方式追求我們自己的美好，只要我們不試圖剝奪他人的美好，或阻礙他人為獲得美好所做的努力。(......)讓每個人過自己認為合適的生活，比強迫他們過別人認為好的生活，更能讓人類獲益。(《[論自由](https://planb.academy/resources/books/on-liberty)》，1859 年) ![image](assets/zh-Hant/072.webp) @@ -1264,6 +1302,8 @@ Benjamin Constant 認為，沒有其他自由的政治自由只是一種幻覺 :::video id=81dba30f-446b-4baa-9dc6-39aa297f741c::: +### 托克維爾與民主的個人主義 + Alexis de Tocqueville 是一位敏銳的民主觀察家，也是民主個人主義的批判者。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/074.webp) @@ -1339,6 +1379,8 @@ Bastiat 的結論： :::video id=4c62c361-923f-47f0-be3f-3798bbc37e57::: +### 十九世紀的批判 + 對資本主義的批判，尤其是馬克思主義的批判，正是在 19 世紀出現的。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/078.webp) @@ -1371,6 +1413,8 @@ Bastiat 的結論： :::video id=0c740114-faff-400a-9359-d4b81766f246::: +### 奧地利學派的回應 + 奧地利經濟學派 (Austrian School of Economics) 由 Carl Menger 於 19 世紀末創立，一開始就反對卡爾‧馬克思 (Karl Marx) 的理論。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/081.webp) @@ -1429,7 +1473,7 @@ Mises 創造了「polylogism」一詞來解釋這種詭辯。"Poly 「是多的 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/085.webp) -早在 1922 年，路德維希‧馮‧米塞斯 (Ludwig von Mises) 就在他的著作《社會主義》(_Socialism)中指出，社會主義會導致廣泛的短缺，因為沒有市場提供的價格系統，中央計畫者就無法進行精確的經濟計算。 +早在 1922 年，路德維希‧馮‧米塞斯 (Ludwig von Mises) 就在他的著作《[社會主義](https://planb.academy/resources/books/socialism-mises)》(_Socialism)中指出，社會主義會導致廣泛的短缺，因為沒有市場提供的價格系統，中央計畫者就無法進行精確的經濟計算。 ## 通往奴役之路 @@ -1437,7 +1481,9 @@ Mises 創造了「polylogism」一詞來解釋這種詭辯。"Poly 「是多的 :::video id=4ba4f2b4-86f4-4ef4-a5f8-ef8d6b1a1770::: -由於對西方民主國家經濟中政府干預主義的興起感到震驚，哈耶克寫了《通往奴役之路》(The Road to Serfdom_)一書，作為對集體主義的哲學批判，不論是來自右翼還是左翼。由於《讀者文摘》(Reader's Digest)出版了幾百萬冊，這本書大大提高了哈耶克在美國的知名度。 +### 哈耶克對集體主義的警告 + +由於對西方民主國家經濟中政府干預主義的興起感到震驚，哈耶克寫了《[通往奴役之路](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-road-to-serfdom)》(The Road to Serfdom_)一書，作為對集體主義的哲學批判，不論是來自右翼還是左翼。由於《讀者文摘》(Reader's Digest)出版了幾百萬冊，這本書大大提高了哈耶克在美國的知名度。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/086.webp) @@ -1480,13 +1526,15 @@ Mises 創造了「polylogism」一詞來解釋這種詭辯。"Poly 「是多的 :::video id=563102d8-ee0c-4c8d-b592-dabb8a395403::: +### 凱恩斯革命 + 資本主義經常被指責為：「我們必須總是生產更多」 或者是這樣的公式：「消費有利於增長」然而，這些想法並非源自傳統的資本主義，而是自 1930 年代以來主宰經濟科學領域與政治階層的凱恩斯主義。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/088.webp) ### 1929 年危機的分析 -約翰‧梅納德‧凱恩斯 (John Maynard Keynes) 的著作《就業、利息與貨幣通論》(The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money)於 1936 年出版，風靡全球。凱恩斯質疑大蕭條的成因以及擺脫蕭條的方法，他描述了一個新的經濟範例，這將會改變幾代經濟學家和政治家。 +約翰‧梅納德‧凱恩斯 (John Maynard Keynes) 的著作《[就業、利息與貨幣通論](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-general-theory)》(The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money)於 1936 年出版，風靡全球。凱恩斯質疑大蕭條的成因以及擺脫蕭條的方法，他描述了一個新的經濟範例，這將會改變幾代經濟學家和政治家。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/089.webp) @@ -1530,7 +1578,7 @@ Rueff 於 1919 年畢業於École Polytechnique，他的職業生涯是高級公 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/094.webp) -在 1971 年的 _The Monetary Sin of the West_ 一書中，Rueff 這樣寫道： +在 1971 年的 _[The Monetary Sin of the West](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west)_ 一書中，Rueff 這樣寫道： > 正是由於預算赤字，人們失去了自由。 他補充說：「通貨膨脹就是用不存在的錢來補貼沒有任何收益的支出」。他說：「觀察國際貨幣體系的演變，人們會認為西方正在應用列寧的建議，根據列寧的建議：要摧毀資產階級政權，只要摧毀它的貨幣就夠了。 @@ -1547,6 +1595,8 @@ Rueff 於 1919 年畢業於École Polytechnique，他的職業生涯是高級公 :::video id=99ab9658-dbc6-4f7e-87b6-a43debfd1969::: +### 貨幣與文明 + 貨幣是一種工具，讓人類得以超越以物易物、儲蓄，並透過市場進行大規模的協調。它使勞動的專業化、比較優勢、貿易收益、經濟計算成為可能。沒有金錢，就沒有現代文明。 ### 黃金作為全球標準 @@ -1589,7 +1639,7 @@ Rueff 於 1919 年畢業於École Polytechnique，他的職業生涯是高級公 > 黃金，不會改變其本質，沒有國籍之分，永恆而普遍地被視為不可改變的卓越價值。 ### 沒有國家壟斷的貨幣市場是可能的 -1976 年，哈耶克提出了一個替代國家壟斷貨幣創造的方案：貨幣之間的競爭。在他的著作_Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ (貨幣非國有化_)中，他構思了一個沒有國家壟斷的貨幣市場，在這個市場中會存在幾種私人貨幣。由私人實體創造和管理不同的貨幣，將允許個人選擇最穩定和可靠的貨幣，從而鼓勵發行者之間的競爭和紀律。 +1976 年，哈耶克提出了一個替代國家壟斷貨幣創造的方案：貨幣之間的競爭。在他的著作_Pour une vraie concurrence des monnaies_ ([貨幣非國有化](https://planb.academy/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money)_)中，他構思了一個沒有國家壟斷的貨幣市場，在這個市場中會存在幾種私人貨幣。由私人實體創造和管理不同的貨幣，將允許個人選擇最穩定和可靠的貨幣，從而鼓勵發行者之間的競爭和紀律。 ![image](assets/zh-Hant/100.webp) diff --git a/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..51693abd863 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/book.yml b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..7fc2d20130e --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: c3cf28bd-71f9-47ff-9be5-91e20cb1a4d1 + +author: Murray Rothbard + +level: beginner + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - politics + - self-sovereignty + - deep-dive + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/en.yml b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..c2b14ddd091 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/anatomy-of-the-state/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "Anatomy of the State" + +publication_year: 1974 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Rothbard's concise essay dissects the nature of the state, arguing that it is fundamentally a parasitic institution that survives through taxation and the monopoly of force. He distinguishes between the state and voluntary society, showing how governments use ideology, intellectuals, and fear to maintain legitimacy. The essay draws on Franz Oppenheimer's distinction between the "economic means" (production and trade) and the "political means" (coercion and confiscation) of acquiring wealth. diff --git a/resources/books/common-sense/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/common-sense/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..0001923b5e0 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/common-sense/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/common-sense/book.yml b/resources/books/common-sense/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..eb43ea11f93 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/common-sense/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: e41a861f-e2e0-4829-a7ea-83cd67cb4005 + +author: Thomas Paine + +level: beginner + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - politics + - historical + - self-sovereignty + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/common-sense/en.yml b/resources/books/common-sense/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..3a2d4664328 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/common-sense/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "Common Sense" + +publication_year: 1776 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Thomas Paine's incendiary pamphlet, published anonymously in January 1776, made the case for American independence from Great Britain in plain language accessible to ordinary colonists. Selling over 500,000 copies in its first year, it remains one of the most influential political pamphlets ever written. Paine argued that hereditary monarchy was absurd, that government existed only to secure liberty and property, and that separation from Britain was both inevitable and urgent. diff --git a/resources/books/on-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/on-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..5880fd45c64 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/on-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/on-liberty/book.yml b/resources/books/on-liberty/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..b6fc39be20f --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/on-liberty/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: 802c7573-db4a-4571-afbb-b3efec9b39cb + +author: John Stuart Mill + +level: intermediate + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - philosophy + - politics + - self-sovereignty + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/on-liberty/en.yml b/resources/books/on-liberty/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..5bb1bd1d766 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/on-liberty/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "On Liberty" + +publication_year: 1859 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Mill's foundational essay on individual freedom articulates the "harm principle": the only legitimate reason for society to exercise power over an individual is to prevent harm to others. The work defends freedom of thought, expression, and lifestyle against both government tyranny and the "tyranny of the majority." Mill argues that political and economic freedom are inseparable, and that a society which suppresses individuality stagnates. diff --git a/resources/books/socialism-mises/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/socialism-mises/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..0b4e0719dae Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/socialism-mises/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/socialism-mises/book.yml b/resources/books/socialism-mises/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..c2e695db96c --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/socialism-mises/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: ca7ac5f7-74a4-4bad-ba9f-c6ddb09860b8 + +author: Ludwig von Mises + +level: expert + +original_language: de +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - economics + - politics + - deep-dive + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/socialism-mises/en.yml b/resources/books/socialism-mises/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..14eff35d4bb --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/socialism-mises/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis" + +publication_year: 1922 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: false + +description: | + Mises's systematic critique of socialism, first published in German as "Die Gemeinwirtschaft," demonstrates that socialist economic planning is impossible without market prices. Without private ownership of the means of production, there can be no market for capital goods, no prices, and therefore no rational way to allocate resources. The book's "economic calculation argument" converted Hayek and an entire generation of economists, and remains the most rigorous theoretical refutation of central planning. diff --git a/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..4fa68d66726 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/book.yml b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..160df2a13e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: 443ac16c-4824-4228-9b37-c6444666c673 + +author: Friedrich Hayek + +level: expert + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - philosophy + - politics + - self-sovereignty + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/en.yml b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..3e850629456 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-constitution-of-liberty/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The Constitution of Liberty" + +publication_year: 1960 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Hayek's comprehensive statement of classical liberal philosophy examines the meaning of liberty, the role of law in preserving freedom, and the dangers of the welfare state. He traces the intellectual history of freedom from the ancient Greeks through the Enlightenment to the modern era, arguing that spontaneous order and the rule of law, not central planning, produce the best outcomes for society. The book remains a cornerstone of 20th-century liberal thought. diff --git a/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..e1c8b1f9b1a Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/book.yml b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..945e505deea --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: c43ce03f-e450-431a-84b9-4395634bffe3 + +author: Friedrich Hayek + +level: expert + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - economics + - finance + - monetary-theory + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/en.yml b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..3f21636f480 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-denationalization-of-money/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The Denationalization of Money" + +publication_year: 1976 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + In this radical proposal, Hayek argues that the government monopoly on money should be abolished and replaced by competing private currencies. Banks and institutions would issue their own money, and market competition would ensure stability better than any central bank. Written in 1976, the book anticipates the logic behind Bitcoin by nearly four decades: a non-state money whose value is maintained not by decree but by its utility and scarcity. diff --git a/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..ba6cc6eb656 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/book.yml b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..455259b6e51 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: 5513d2ab-0584-459f-9283-59e8e01e0e60 + +author: Murray Rothbard + +level: expert + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - philosophy + - politics + - self-sovereignty + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/en.yml b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..359d6344cc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-ethics-of-liberty/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The Ethics of Liberty" + +publication_year: 1982 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Rothbard's systematic treatise on libertarian political philosophy builds a complete ethical framework from natural rights theory. Starting from the principle of self-ownership, he derives property rights, contract law, and the illegitimacy of state aggression. The book argues that all forms of statism, from democratic socialism to fascism, have been tried and failed, and that a free society based on voluntary exchange is the only moral and practical alternative. diff --git a/resources/books/the-general-theory/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-general-theory/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..9dc57c94c9f Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-general-theory/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-general-theory/book.yml b/resources/books/the-general-theory/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..4403c566121 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-general-theory/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: 5b0bac42-b7e1-405d-92d2-8829e25ece54 + +author: John Maynard Keynes + +level: expert + +original_language: en +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - economics + - finance + - monetary-theory + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-general-theory/en.yml b/resources/books/the-general-theory/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..5e61255c317 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-general-theory/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money" + +publication_year: 1936 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: true + +description: | + Keynes's magnum opus revolutionized macroeconomics by arguing that aggregate demand, not supply, drives employment and output. He proposed that governments should use deficit spending to stimulate the economy during downturns, challenging the classical view that markets naturally tend toward full employment. The book provided the intellectual foundation for the welfare state and interventionist fiscal policy that dominated the 20th century, and remains the primary target of Austrian school criticism. diff --git a/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..80b5cc9e035 Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/book.yml b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..5eebb58cb91 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: b4d6e3a3-8dcd-4c6a-87c1-b60b6fc7d35f + +author: Jacques Rueff + +level: expert + +original_language: fr +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - economics + - finance + - monetary-theory + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/en.yml b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..3f485e1dbc4 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-monetary-sin-of-the-west/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The Monetary Sin of the West" + +publication_year: 1971 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: false + +description: | + French economist Jacques Rueff's critique of the Bretton Woods system and the gold exchange standard, published the same year Nixon ended dollar-gold convertibility. Rueff argues that the system's fatal flaw was allowing the United States to export dollars without constraint, creating inflation and instability worldwide. A lifelong advocate of the gold standard, Rueff warned that abandoning sound money would lead to chronic deficits, monetary disorder, and the erosion of individual freedom. diff --git a/resources/books/the-social-contract/assets/cover_en.webp b/resources/books/the-social-contract/assets/cover_en.webp new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..be5a29c174b Binary files /dev/null and b/resources/books/the-social-contract/assets/cover_en.webp differ diff --git a/resources/books/the-social-contract/book.yml b/resources/books/the-social-contract/book.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..f91b845988e --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-social-contract/book.yml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +id: 3debba52-f930-4082-8fb1-2bedc887b454 + +author: Jean-Jacques Rousseau + +level: intermediate + +original_language: fr +proofreading: + - language: en + last_contribution_date: 2026-03-18 + urgency: 1 + contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + reward: 0.07 +tags: + - politics + - philosophy + - historical + +contributor_names: + - Asi0Flammeus + +license: CC-BY-SA-V4 diff --git a/resources/books/the-social-contract/en.yml b/resources/books/the-social-contract/en.yml new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..d6d638da79a --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/books/the-social-contract/en.yml @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +title: "The Social Contract" + +publication_year: 1762 + +cover: cover_en.webp + +original: false + +description: | + Rousseau's most influential political work argues that legitimate political authority rests on a social contract agreed upon by all citizens for the common good. The concept of the "general will" became central to democratic theory but also to critiques of collectivism. Rousseau's vision of popular sovereignty, where individuals surrender natural freedom in exchange for civil freedom guaranteed by the state, stands as the philosophical counterpoint to the liberal tradition of natural rights defended by Locke, Bastiat, and the Austrian school.